3 1
A 62
B 17
C 22
D 19
E 17
F 3
G 21
H 8
I 17
J 4
K 7
L 10
M 26
N 6
O 7
P 29
Q 1
R 11
S 48
T 68
U 2
V 5
W 8
Y 1
Z 1
3
3D Printer
3D Printer - "A 3D printer is an advanced technological device capable of creating physical objects, reproducing them in three–dimensional form by adding material in layers. This innovative technology has revolutionized many industries, including design, prototyping, medicine, and manufacturing and engineering.
The basic principle of a 3D printer is to create an object by sequentially applying thin layers of material to the base. This process is based on specially developed software that converts a 3D model into instructions for a 3D printer. Thus, each layer of the material exactly corresponds to a specific layer in the original 3D model.
3D printers can use different types of materials to create objects, including plastics, metals, ceramics, resins and even organic substances, opening up huge opportunities for a variety of industries. In addition, 3D printers have high precision and detail, allowing you to create complex geometric shapes and structures that were previously inaccessible to traditional production methods.
The advantages of 3D printers are obvious. Firstly, they can significantly reduce the time and cost of prototyping and testing new products. Thanks to this, companies can develop and improve their products more quickly and efficiently, reducing risks and increasing competitiveness. Secondly, 3D printers enable the implementation of customized orders and product personalization, opening up new opportunities for on-demand and mass customized production. Thirdly, this innovative technology can be used in medicine to create prostheses, orthoses, models of organs and tissues, which contributes to the development of medical science and makes life easier for many people.
However, despite the huge potential of 3D printers, this technology also has its limitations. One of the main disadvantages is the complexity and high cost of the process, especially when using special materials. In addition, the size of the desired objects may limit the capabilities of the 3D printer, as well as the quality and durability of the manufactured products compared to traditional production methods.
In general, 3D printers represent an innovative technological solution that changes the approach to design and production. They have great potential to create new products, improve the quality of life and develop various industries. With the development and improvement of this technology, even more 3D printer capabilities and applications are expected in the future."
A
A binary system
A binary system is a set of two stars that make a complete revolution around a common center of mass, thus making a double revolution.
A double star
A double star - two stars that are visible in the sky close to each other. If the stars are really close to each other and are bound by gravity, it is a physical double, and if they are seen close to each other as a result of random projection, it is an optical double
A light-like world line
A light-like world line - The existence of a "Trajectory" in space-time, which has a slope to the time axis equal to 45o, is the world line of the light beam. It is also commonly referred to as the isotropic world line.
A new star
A new star that increases its brilliance hundreds or even thousands of times in a few hours, then gradually dims and returns to its original radiance after a few weeks. The presence of the nova is due to the presence of large-age stars that have almost completed the process of evolution. It appears in close binary systems when one of the components - a white dwarf or neutron star - is a degenerate star. When the evolutionary development of such systems occurs, the matter of the second component – a normal star – may begin to transfer to a neighboring star with signs of degradation. A thermonuclear explosion occurs on the surface of a white dwarf or in the magnetosphere of a neutron star, when a critical mass of matter accumulates there. It causes an explosion that destroys the shell of the star and increases its luminosity up to several thousand times. There have also been repeated outbreaks of new outbreaks.
A stellar association
A stellar association is a sparse group of young stars that are usually less than a few tens of millions of years old. The size of a stellar association can range from 50 to 100 pc, and the number of observed stars can range from a few units to several hundred units
A supermassive black hole
A supermassive black hole - A huge black hole with a mass of more than 100,000 solar masses.
A tight dual system
A tight dual system - This system consists of two stars that move so close that their components can exchange mass.
Aberration
Aberration is a distortion of something, mainly applied to phenomena. For example, if the Sun suddenly turns green, it will be an aberration.
Abiogenesis
Abiogenesis (from Greek, prefix a meaning "not", bios - "life and genesis" - origin).The emergence of life from non-living matter or the formation of organic compounds that make up living organisms outside. Laboratory synthesis of proteins and other organic chemicals under conditions inherent in the primordial Earth proves the possibility of abiogenic life formation on our planet.
Ablation
Ablation is the phenomenon of “blowing off” a part of its substance from the surface of a body with a high-speed flow of hot gas. The thermal protection of many re-entry spacecraft, for example, Vostok-1, on which Gagarin flew, is built on the principle of ablation.
Absolute magnitude
Absolute magnitude is a measure of the true brightness of a star - the apparent magnitude that the star would have from a distance of 10 parsecs. The scale is logarithmic and inverse, i.e. the brighter the object, the smaller its magnitude. Very bright objects can have a negative magnitude.
Absolute stellar magnitude
Absolute stellar magnitude - the measure of a star's true brightness is the apparent stellar magnitude that the star would have from a distance of 10 parsecs. The scale is logarithmic and inverse, i.e., the brighter the object, the smaller its stellar magnitude. Very bright objects can have a negative value of stellar magnitude.
Absolute zero temperature
Absolute zero temperature - the temperature reading is 0 degrees Kelvin (0 K), which is approximately minus 273oC. The lowest temperature possible.
Accretion
Accretion is the fall of matter onto a cosmic object such as a planet, star, or galaxy. This process is accompanied by the release of energy and may explain, for example, the existence of hot regions on neutron stars.
Accretion disk
An accretion disk is a disk of matter orbiting a black hole or close binary star.
Accumulation
Accumulation - A group of stars or galaxies that is a stable system due to mutual attraction. Clusters of stars are divided into globular and scattered. Also, among the galactic clusters, you can find the right and wrong ones.
Adaptive optics
Adaptive optics is a method of correcting the shape of the telescope lens reflective surface using a viriaty of rods that apply pressure to the mirror back surface. Each rod has its own mechanical actuator and can vary the amount of pressure applied to a localized area of the mirror, thus correcting its shape. Adaptive optics is often used to smooth out the negative effects of thermal fluctuations in the Earth's atmosphere on the images quality of celestial objects.
In order to program the variation of rod pressure force, it is necessary to continuously obtain information about the current conditions of electromagnetic radiation propagation from the investigated celestial object. This is done by analyzing the wavefront distortion that travels through the atmosphere on its way from the radiation source to the telescope.
The reference source of radiation is often a star that is in the telescope's field of view near the celestial object being observed. Adaptive optics is also used to correct the shape of the main mirrors of telescopes or lasers that are designed to be launched into outer space. Mirrors launched into space can change their shape due to the lack of gravity and the temperature conditions in outer space, and adaptive optics helps to correct these deformations.
Aeronomy
Aeronomy (from ero- and Greek nomos - law). A science that studies physical and chemical processes in the atmosphere of any planet, including the Earth's atmosphere and ionosphere at altitudes from 50 to 500 km.
Aerosols
Aerosols (prefix - ero from Greek. AERAS ) air, solid or small particles of liquid matter supported by an appropriate medium. Clouds, smoke, fog and haze consist of aerosols.
AI
Artificial intelligence is the ability of a computer to learn, make decisions, and perform actions typical of human intelligence.
AI is also a science at the intersection of mathematics, biology, psychology, cybernetics and a bunch of other things. It studies technologies that allow humans to write intelligent programmes and teach computers to solve problems on their own.
Albedo
Albedo is the ratio of the amount of scattered electromagnetic radiation to the radiation incident on the surface of an object. It characterizes the light-reflecting properties of an object. The darkest objects in the Solar System have low albedo, and the brightest objects have high albedo.
Aliens from outer space
Aliens from outer space - Everything that originated outside the Earth and appeared on it can be called aliens from outer space. Sometimes they are called meteorites figuratively. But most often, aliens mean intelligent alien beings who have visited our planet.
We must consider the problem of the appearance of aliens from outer space from different points of view: historical and modern. There are a number of legends and historical monuments that can tell about events and phenomena that, from a modern point of view, can be explained, among other things, by the presence of aliens on Earth. As a rule, this information does not correspond to reality due to the fact that we do not have the opportunity to find out its sources. As a result of a consistent series of rewriting, processing and translation through a number of other languages, it has come down to us. For example, you can cite the Mayan languages, Spanish, English and Russian. In addition, the events described quite often may be caused by less exotic reasons.
Despite the fact that modern reports of contacts with flying saucer pilots, etc. have not been confirmed impartially and documented, they still cannot be taken into account.
Almucantarat
An Almucantarat is a circle parallel to the mathematical horizon on the celestial sphere, that is, a circle of equal heights.
An elementary particle
An elementary particle - This particle is considered indivisible.
An elliptical galaxy
An elliptical galaxy - This galaxy has an elliptical shape and does not have a spiral structure.
An exoplanet
An exoplanet - An unknown planet that belongs to another star system and makes a complete revolution around another star. It is also possible for planets to exist that are not related to a particular star.
Analemma
An analemma is a curve that the Sun describes in the sky throughout the year, if its position is recorded every day at the same time of day.
Angstrom
Angstrom is a unit of length equal to one tenth of a billionth of a meter. It is used to measure wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, especially in the ultraviolet range.
Annihilation
Annihilation is the process of transformation of an elementary particle and an antiparticle into other different particles. In most cases, by doing so quanta of fields (See Physical Field) are producing. Annihilation plays an important role in the early stage of the Big Bang.
Anthropic principle
The Anthropic principle is that Man observes the Universe as it is. If the Universe were different, Man would not exist and he could not observe it. Thus it should be noted that Man is a part of the present Universe and is produced by the processes taking place in it. These processes continue and therefore there is no reason to believe that Man is the final "product" of the evolution of intelligent matter (see "Mind").
Antigravity
Antigravity - this is the field that creates the gravitational field that repels light rays and matter.
Antigravity universe
Antigravity universe - the universe where gravity has the character of repulsion is on the other side of the ring singularity of the black hole in the Kerr region.
Antimatter
Antimatter is matter consisting of antiparticles, that is, particles that are antiparticles to matter particles. At the moment antimatter has not been found anywhere in appreciable quantities in the universe.
Antiparticle
An antiparticle is a matter particle corresponding to an antimatter particle. When a matter particle and an antiparticle collide, they annihilate, which releases energy and creates other particles.
Apex
Apex is a point on the celestial sphere that determines the direction of movement of a space object.
Apocentre
Apocenter is the point of the orbit farthest from the central body. If the central body is the Sun, this point is called aphelion, if the Earth is apogee, if the star is apoaster. The closest point of the orbit is, accordingly, called the pericenter (perihelion, perigee, periastron).
Apogee
Apogee refers to the point in the elliptical orbit that is at the greatest distance from Earth. It is the farthest point from the central body around which an object revolves.
Apparent stellar magnitude
Apparent stellar magnitude - A measure of the apparent brilliance of a star in the sky.
Approximation
Approximation is the simplification of something, for example, replacing a long cumbersome formula with a less accurate but much simpler one, or a complex curved line with a broken line.
Armillary sphere
An armillary sphere is a tesktop device consisting of movable hoops and disks used to visually represent the celestial sphere, points, lines, and planes used in spherical astronomy.
Artificial earth satellites
Artificial earth satellites - Spacecraft launched into orbit around the Earth are called artificial Earth satellites - ISS. To solve various tasks, satellites use different equipment. It allows you to make measurements, transmit information and navigate on land vehicles, as well as monitor the Earth for various needs.
The satellite can often be seen with the naked eye (see Radiation receiver, eye) in the form of dots moving rapidly against the background of the starry sky. Unlike airplanes, which are illuminated in the form of colored and flashing beacons, the ISS have a silvery or slightly yellowish sheen, which is a reflection of sunlight. At times, the brightness of the satellite changes when it turns to the observer from different sides. It is often possible to observe a phenomenon when, at the entrance of the satellite into the shadow of the Earth, it seems to “go out”.
Ashen Light
Ashen Light - The faint glow of the unlit part of the Moon observed from Earth is called ashen light. Its nature is due to the fact that, like the Moon in the night sky of the Earth, it illuminates the surface of the lunar surface with its light at night.
The area of the Earth's disk observed from the surface of the Moon is 13.5 times larger than that of the Moon in the terrestrial sky, and the albedo of the Earth due to its light cloud layer is 5.8 times larger than if it were on the Moon. Because of this, the Earth, being in a state of "full earth", illuminates the lunar surface 78.3 times more strongly than the Moon, which is in a state of "Full Moon". In this context, it is often possible to observe on the celestial sphere how a thin crescent of the illuminated surface of the Moon seems to frame on one side the gray, illuminated part of its night.
As a result of ground-based observations of ash light, changes in the albedo of the Earth can be determined, as well as measurements using satellites. Such changes affect the Earth's climate. Thus, as a result of changes, the proportion of solar energy absorbed by the atmosphere, oceans and continents changes, which means a change in their temperature. During long-term observations of ashen light, it can be concluded that over the past five years, the albedo of the Earth has decreased by 2.5%, which means that global warming of the Earth's climate is really happening.
Asterism
An asterism is a group of bright stars that has its own name, different from the name of the constellation these stars belong to. For example, the Dipper, Orion's Belt, and the Pleiades are asterisms in the constellations of the Big Dipper, Orion, and Taurus, respectively.
Asteroid
Asteroids (asteroides - starlike objects) are small planets in the Solar System, most often irregularly shaped, with an average diameter of less than 1500 km. They are located mainly between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. There are also other groups of asteroids in the solar system, such as the Greeks and Trojans, which are located near the libration points of the Sun-Jupiter system. Asteroids that cross the Earth's orbit and approach the Sun have also been discovered. Another asteroid belt beyond the orbit of Neptune, called the Kuiper belt, has recently been discovered. Several hundred asteroids have already been discovered in this belt, among which there are ones larger than 1000 km.
Astrobleme
An astrobleme is a circular crater of considerable size formed by the impact of meteoroids, asteroids, or comet nuclei on the surface of a space body or the earth.
Astroclimate
Astroclimate is a set of atmospheric factors that affect the quality of images obtained with a telescope. It is studied by the corresponding branch of science.
Astrodynamics
Astrodynamics is the discipline that studies the dynamics of gravitational interaction of cosmic objects.
Astrolabe
The astrolabe is an angular instrument that was invented over a thousand years ago and was widely used in astronomy until the late 18th century. It has much in common with the sextant.
Astrology
Astrology is a study of how the planets influence on the fate of people and events. Astrologers make predictions based on the location of the celestial luminaries at the time of a person's birth or for the current period of time. It is important to note that astrology is a pseudoscience and has no scientific rationale
Astrometry
Astrometry is a branch of astronomy where the coordinates of celestial bodies on the celestial sphere are studied and continuously monitored. For a long time astrometry was the only method of making corrections of the current time before the advent of atomic clocks. This was accomplished by determining time of meridian passage by stars with well-defined coordinates. Astrometry also made it possible to discover the proper motion of stars, to determine the orbital elements of the planets of the solar system and the Moon. The results, obtained by astrometric methods, contained in astronomical catalogs, are used in addressing geodetic and navigational issues.
Astronautics
Astronautics - Space activity, or astronautics, comes from the Greek words: kosmos - world, universe and navtilia - navigation.
The word “cosmonautics” refers to the activity of mankind, which is aimed at the exploration and development of outer space and objects in space with the help of spacecraft. In addition, astronautics is a scientific discipline that develops methods for carrying out this activity.
Astronomical navigation
Astronomical navigation is a method of terrain association, based on information about the positions of luminaries in the sky at any given time. At night, the latitude of a place is determined by the altitude of the polar star above the horizon, and longitude - by the moments of rising, culmination or setting of the luminaries. During the day, latitude is determined by the height of the Sun above the horizon at the moment of its upper culmination, and longitude is calculated by the time difference between this event and noon at a point with known longitude. For this purpose, chronometers are used that keep the current time of a geographic point.
Astronomical unit
An astronomical unit is a unit of distance measurement equal to the average distance from the Earth to the Sun - about 149,505,000 kilometers. It is used to measure distances in the solar system.
Astronomy
Astronomy is the science of the universe, which studies the location, motion, structure, origin and development of celestial bodies and systems.
Astrophotometry
Astrophotometry (from astro..., from Greek fotos "light" and.... metry "measure" ) A section of applied astrophysics dealing with the measurement of light fluxes of celestial bodies using optical detectors. To study the energy distribution in the difference of the incident beam, luminous flux measurements are used in several specific color ranges. Astrophotometry has recently been replaced by spectrometry.
Astrophysics
Astrophysics is the branch of astronomy that studies the physical properties, chemical composition, and evolution of cosmic objects. Applied astrophysics deals with the method of astrophysical measurements.Theoretical astrophysics studies the internal structure of stars, their energy sources, the structure and composition of the atmospheres of stars and planets, the evolution of stars, the properties of the interplanetary medium, etc
Atmosphere
Atmosphere (from Greek atmos -"vapor", "steam" and sphaîra meaning "ball"). Atmosphere is the the outer gas envelope of planets, some of their satellites, and stars... All planets in the solar system have atmospheres that vary greatly in thickness and chemical composition. They have a great influence on the physical conditions of planets such as Venus, Earth, and Mars.... The strength of Mercury and Pluto and their influence on the physical conditions of these planets are insignificant. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune have very dense atmospheres that have no lower boundary and become denser with increasing depth. Processes in planetary atmospheres are related to their thickness and chemical composition, radiation from the central body of the planetary system, the speed of rotation of the planet around its axis and the inclination of this axis to the plane of the planet's orbit as well as internal energy sources. The factors listed above affect the temperature in different parts of the atmosphere, which determines the circulation of gases in it, namely wind, the formation of clouds of water vapor or other chemicals, and seasonal changes of the physical conditions at the it's lower layers. All that has been said about the processes in the atmospheres of planets, for the most part applies to the atmospheres of the satellites of planets. Stellar atmosphere does not affect the physical processes in stars. The atmosheres of the most stars consist of material constantly entering the star material, which is constantly scattered in the surrounding space.
Atom
Atom - the smallest particle of a chemical element having properties that are common for that element.
Attachment diagram
Attachment diagram - an overview photograph of a space-like hypersurface, which is a slice of four-dimensional distorted space-time.
Automated spasecraft
Automated spacecraft are unmanned devices launched into outer space, which can perform operations by radio commands from Earth or by programs laid down in their onboard processors. They are used in various spheres - for the needs of the national economy, scientific research and military purposes. Automated spacecraft include control, attitude control, power supply systems, propulsion systems, radio equipment, telemetry systems and other components depending on the specific mission.
They can be used to study near-Earth space, astrophysical objects, planets and small bodies of the solar system. The design of such vehicles depends on the tasks to be accomplished and may include special equipment developed specifically for each project.
Spacecraft used to study near-Earth space can penetrate the ionosphere and radiation belts of the Earth. To study astrophysical objects, an elongated near-Earth orbit is explored, which allows telescopes to precisely point their telescopes at objects. Automated interplanetary stations are used to study planets and small bodies in the solar system. Due to the long distance and the limitation of the speed of light, operational radio communication between the earth and such stations can be difficult, so intelligent electronic processor systems are installed on them for independent decision-making.
Azimuth
Azimuth is an angular coordinate in a horizontal coordinate system that indicates the direction of a celestial object from an observer.
Azimuth angle
Azimuth angle - this point counts the angle that is on the axis of rotation of the black hole body.
B
Background of microwave radiation
Background of microwave radiation - The radiation that arose during the flash of the hot early Universe (called relict). It is now in a state of such intense redshift that its registration takes place not in the form of light, but in the form of microwave waves (radio waves with millimeter wavelengths).
Balge of the galaxy
Balge of the galaxy - a galaxy bulge is the central, brightest part of the spherical component of a disk galaxy. It consists of old stars moving in elongated orbits and looks like a central thickening of the galaxy disk. There is usually a very dense nucleus at the center of the balge.
Bar of a galaxy
Bar of a galaxy - a galaxy bar is a structure element of many spiral and irregular galaxies. It is an elongated seal of stars and interstellar gas lying in the disk plane. The center of the bar usually coincides with the center of the disk. If a galaxy has a bar, the spiral branches start from its ends, not from the center of the galaxy.
Barster
Barster are flaring cosmic X-ray sources that are accreting neutron stars with orbital periods ranging from a few hours to a few days.
Barycenter
A barycenter is the center of mass of a physical body of complex shape or the center of mass of two or more bodies.
Baryonic matter
Baryonic matter is matter based on baryons, heavy elementary particles including protons and neutrons. It interacts gravitationally with non-baryonic matter, contributing to the hidden mass of the universe. Some of this baryonic matter, including dark nebulae, black dwarfs and neutron stars, which are also unobservable, is called dark matter
Big Bang
The Big Bang is the phenomenon of the origin of the universe. In the framework of this concept, it is believed that the initial state of the universe was a point of singularity with infinitely large density of matter.
Binocular
Binocular are the most affordable optical instrument that can be used by amateur astronomers. It has a magnification from 2 to 12 and allows you to observe various space objects such as Jupiter's satellites, the phases of Venus, the moon, the Andromeda Nebula and others.
Biosphere
The biosphere is the area where life is distributed on a cosmic body, including the planet's surface, atmosphere, hydrosphere and upper lithosphere. Living organisms in the biosphere are closely interconnected, and the extinction of some species can have an unpredictable effect on the entire biosphere. The biosphere has an active influence on the physical and chemical processes of our planet.
Black hole evaporation
Black hole evaporation - This process during which a black hole emits particles and emits radiation.
Black hole explosion
Black hole explosion - the turning point that completes the evaporation process of the primary black hole.
Blazar
Blazar are powerful sources of electromagnetic radiation that are found around supermassive black holes in the cores of some galaxies. They are characterized by a continuous spectrum in all its bands and rapid changes in luminosity.
Bolide
Bolide are very bright meteors that occur when sufficiently large meteoroids enter the Earth's atmosphere. These events are often accompanied by sound phenomena and sometimes end with meteorites falling to the surface.
Bolometric stellar magnitude
Bolometric stellar magnitude is the radiation flux of a cosmic source summed over all ranges of the spectrum. It is measured with a bolometer and allows us to calculate the total radiative power of the source (luminosity), provided we know its distance.
Boost
Boost - The rate at which the speed changes.
Brown dwarf
Brown dwarf - Due to its mass, a brown dwarf occupies an intermediate position between planets and stars. Typically, the surface temperature of brown dwarfs does not exceed 2000 K, as a result of which they have a rich red color or emit exclusively in the infrared region of the spectrum. The brown dwarf was first discovered in 1996, when it was first discovered.
Bursters
Bursters are flaring cosmic X-ray sources that are accreting neutron stars with orbital periods from several hours to several days.
C
Calendar
Calendar - "(from Latin calendar - a debt book in which the upcoming dates were indicated - "calendars" - interest payments on loans).
The calendar is designed to account for relatively long periods of time covered by the concept of "human lifespan". The traditional units of their measurement are: "tropical year" - the period of the full cycle of the sun's movement across the celestial sphere, as well as "average solar day". An important place in calendars is occupied by the so-called "lunar month" - the period of the full cycle of the Moon's movement across the celestial sphere.
The key to the calendar is the requirement that, after many thousands of years, all astronomical phenomena, such as changes in the ratio of day and night, the location of the luminaries in the firmament, etc., would occur within a strictly defined time frame. At the same time, the tropical year contains non-integers of average solar days - 365.2422 and lunar months - 12.3683 - which makes it impossible to create an accurate calendar.
During the development of European civilization, two calendars were used: Gregorian and Julian. Each of them has its drawbacks. For several decades now, but still to no avail, the idea of creating a new, more accurate calendar has been discussed, in which the duration of the months will be the same and the days of the week will be calculated according to their numerical values. As an example, Mondays fall on the 1st, 8th, 15th, 22nd and 29th of May. But despite all the benefits and convenience of this calendar, its introduction faces difficulties due to national, religious and everyday traditions.
Gregorian holidays.
In 1582, a calendar was adopted, named in honor of Pope Gregory XIII. A possible reason was the lag, which by that time had already reached 10 days from the astronomical phenomena that were characteristic of the Julian calendar. In most of Europe, this year, after October 4, October 15 came and the five-hour backlog was eliminated. According to the Gregorian calendar, as in the case of the Julian calendar, for three consecutive years it is equal to 365 days, and each subsequent leap year contains 366 days. Unlike the Julian calendar, the number of years that complete the century - 1700, 1800, etc. - included only those that have numbers starting with 400, which means 1600, 2000, 2400, etc. This allowed the Gregorian calendar to be more accurate and precise compared to the Julian calendar, which lags behind astronomical phenomena by one day in 3,300 years.
In Russia, in 1918, the Gregorian calendar was introduced as an official one. Already at this time, the lag from the Julian calendar began to exceed 14 days. As a result, they were excluded from the current 1918 year. Since now, in order to indicate the dates of historical events, the phrase "in a new style" has been used.
The name is Julian.
According to historical data, the calendar was introduced in 46 BC by Julius Caesar and was subsequently named after him - the Julian calendar. It was a calendar that included 365 days for three years in a row. Every fifth of the four rooms has 366 days at their disposal. Taking into account these circumstances, the adopted calendar lagged behind astronomical phenomena by as much as 3 days for 400 years, and then, due to the accumulation of errors, it was replaced by a more accurate Gregorian calendar. The days when the Julian calendar was adopted as the official one should not be confused with the Julian calendar."
Cepheids
Cepheids - Supergiants, called variable stars, which periodically change their brightness and apparent brightness, are objects of observation. Cepheus is an example of the prototype of the Cepheus star. The conditions conducive to variability are fluctuations in the radius and temperature of the photosphere (pulsations).
Chemical Rocket Engine
Chemical Rocket Engine - This engine runs on chemical fuel. This means liquid jet engines, which are currently the only real way to put spacecraft into orbit.
Circular pendulum orbit
Circular pendulum orbit -This is a kind of circular orbit for light, which takes place in the negative space of a Kerr black hole.
Civilization
Civilization - The word "civilization" comes from the Latin word civilis, which means civil or state.
In the context of this topic, civilization is a set of external manifestations, internal relationships and technological achievements of human society.
Human interactions and technological advances depend on the development of science, culture, art and morality. Morality and moral norms, which can be formulated in a religious or philosophical framework, determine the rules of behavior that are necessary to maintain the vital activity of this entire community. The rules of morality are created in culture and art.
The standards of civilization are its ability to reduce the level of entropy in the universe.
Collapse
Collapse - This is a phenomenon in which a catastrophic compression of a body occurs, caused by the action of its own gravitational field.
Comet
Comet - A small object composed of dust, gas and ice that typically moves in a highly elliptical (or even parabolic or hyperbolic) orbit around the Sun.
Comet heads
Comet heads are those that consist of nuclei and their gas-dust shells, which are called coma. The comet's head is formed due to the evaporation of the dust-contaminated ice that makes up the nucleus. The degree of evaporation, and therefore the size of the coma, directly depends on the distance of the comet from the Sun. Comas begin their development when comets approach the Sun at a distance exceeding 4-6 astronomical units, and reach their maximum at perihelion. Sometimes their sizes reach a million kilometers.
Comet nuclei
Cometary nuclei are called solid masses with sizes from several hundred meters to several tens of kilometers, which consist of ice and rocks with an admixture of stony substances. The most likely components of the nuclei, in all likelihood, are a mixture of frozen water with particles of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide, as well as a small amount of other gases. The dust contains a large amount of stony matter. According to modern concepts, comet nuclei consist of primary matter that formed the Solar system. With the help of periodic comets that return to the Sun at certain intervals, a crust of dust should form on the surface of their nuclei, which has been "pulled out" from the ice sheet. This effect is similar in its consequences to the formation of mud on spring snowdrifts.
Comet tails
Comet tails are formed as a result of the fact that, under the influence of radiation from the Sun and the solar wind, gas and dust, like smoke from a chimney, are “blown away” from the head of the comet in the direction opposite to the direction of movement of the Sun. The different shapes and brightness of comet tails depend on the ratio of gas and dust in their composition. Their length can reach several million kilometers.
Comets
Comets (kometes - long-haired).
Objects approaching the Sun along highly elongated trajectories, as a rule, are formations of gas, dust and plasma. Their appearance is caused by the evaporation of small icy bodies with sizes from several centimeters to tens of kilometers, which are called cometary nuclei. Among all, most of these cometary "embryos" are located in the Oort cloud on the outskirts of the Solar System. Having started moving towards the center of the Solar system for some reason, the core gradually approaches the Sun, while it heats up. At the moment of its melting, its ice sheets begin to evaporate, forming a cometary head and tail, which can reach enormous sizes.
Being on the surface of the spheres of attraction (see gravitational field) of large planets, first-generation comets can become short-period, i.e. have an orbital period of less than 200 years and remain within the Solar System. As they approach the Sun, they gradually collapse and generate meteor swarms that continue to move in the same orbits.
If a comet that came from the Oort cloud does not have a gravitational effect on large planets, it is moving away almost to its original distance from the Sun. At the same time, the comet no longer moves in the Oort cloud, but returns to our central luminary and becomes periodic, with an orbital period of up to several million years.
There is a possibility that some of the comets come to the Sun from interstellar space.
Asteroids and comets can also pose a danger to Earth. This is evidenced by a relatively recent event. A fragment of the nucleus of comet Schumacher-Levy-9, measuring about 10 kilometers, crashed into the atmosphere of Jupiter in July 1994. Thanks to this, it was possible to achieve an explosion power of 6 million hydrogen bombs with a capacity of one megaton each. The scale of the disaster can be concluded by analyzing that already 45 minutes after the event, a spot was discovered in the cloud layer of Jupiter, the diameter of which exceeded the diameter of the Earth by 2-2.5 times. It is absolutely possible to say that in the event of the fall of such a small celestial body to Earth, it is highly likely that not only the conditions for the existence of highly developed life on our planet will disappear, but also the path of further development of geological evolution will be changed.
Given the extremely low probability of a collision of this body with our planet, it would be wise to create a simple protection system around the Earth against this threat. In a few years, during which all the necessary technical and organizational capabilities for the implementation of this project will be ready, it will be implemented.
You can observe comets in the sky quite often. Their appearance and brilliance depend on the characteristics of cometary nuclei, their trajectories relative to the Sun and the Earth. As a rule, they can only be observed with a telescope. Often, once every hundred years, they become visible to the naked eye (see Radiation receiver, eye) and arouse genuine public interest. To date, there are about a hundred comets that have an orbital period of less than a hundred years. But every year, several new comets are discovered that have long periods of rotation. Astrologers and astronomy enthusiasts are engaged not only in the search for new comets, but also in their study. It should be added that comets receive the names of their discoverers.
Completely remote
Completely remote - it is absolutely inaccessible for material objects located in the upper part of the light cone, a region of space-time.
Cone of escape
Cone of escape - A visual cone located near the surface of a collapsing star that can be used to determine which rays of light can be directed at the star to infinity.
Constellations
Constellations - Separate parts of the starry sky, which were conditionally divided in ancient times, became known as constellations. There are modern boundaries that divide the celestial sphere into 88 constellations. They were established in 1922-1935 by the International Astronomical Union. These boundaries pass only through the intersection points of the equatorial coordinates and the declination circles of the coordinate system of the epoch of 1875.
Convection
Convection (Latin convectio - delivery) is a delivery process.
Convection is one of the mechanisms that promotes heat transfer. In this case, there is a movement of gaseous, plasma or water particles, clouds, streams, which heat up to varying degrees. At the same time, plasma thickenings having a higher temperature move from the depth to the surface in the convective zones of stars. At this point, they cool down and sink back into the depths. Convection in the Earth's atmosphere is easily detected when objects move away and lose clarity if observed through heated air rising above a campfire. Heated air flows have a refractive index that differs from the refractive index of cold air. This allows them to be used as lenses.
Cosmic rays
Cosmic rays are streams of stable particles with high energy that come to Earth from outer space and interact with atmospheric matter (secondary radiation).
Cosmodrome
Cosmodrome (from the Greek. kosmos is the universe, dromos is a place to run).
The territory on which the complex of special structures and equipment intended for the implementation of spacecraft launches is located is called a cosmodrome.
At the cosmodrome, there should be: launchers; installation and test complexes for the preparation of spacecraft and launch vehicles; command and measurement complexes that monitor current parameters and transmit telemetric commands; information and computing centers; command posts; research and testing units, etc. The number of cosmodrome maintenance personnel can reach several thousand a man.
Fields for spaceports should be located in desert areas or on the shores of oceans in order to exclude the possibility of falling structural elements of launch vehicles and their head fairings in populated areas of the planet. In addition, spaceports are located as close as possible to the equator of the Earth. This gain makes it possible to benefit in the form of energy production, since the linear velocity of the earth's surface (0.465 km/s), which is 0.475 km/s at the equator, is added to the launch vehicle's own speed, which usually starts in the direction of the east - in the direction of the Earth's daily rotation.
Already, there are about 3 dozen cosmodromes on Earth that differ in their capabilities, and several more are planned to be built in the near future. The number of launchers at different cosmodromes of the world ranges from 1 to 15, and the number of installation and test complexes ranges from 1 to 14. At the moment, the number of launches per year and the annual volume of cargo into orbit range from 3 to 150 and from 4.5 to 2000 tons, respectively.
The number of projects to create mobile launch facilities for space launch vehicles is increasing, allowing them to be launched from the equator and away from populated areas. They began to operate the "Sea Launch" - a launch facility that floats in the open ocean. Launch vehicles have been launched from mother planes for 10 years. A missile was launched from a submarine.
Cosmological constant
The cosmological constant is the same constant, which is usually denoted by the Greek letter lambda, which is one of the terms of the equations of general relativity, which were proposed by Friedman to describe the universe. If the lambda is positive, this term describes a force that, if negative, acts contrary to gravity and contributes to the expansion of the universe. This force increases with increasing distance between objects.
The data obtained through observations show us that the cosmological constant has a place to be and its value is significant. There is a possibility that the value of the cosmological constant has temporary fluctuations.
Cosmological model of the Big Bang
Cosmological model of the Big Bang - A model of the universe based on the assumption of a primary explosion as the beginning of the existence of the observable universe.
Cosmological principle
Cosmological principle - The fundamental principle of all modern cosmological models is the cosmological principle. It consists in the fact that the characteristics of the Universe are the same from the points of view of observers who are at all its points at the same time. This explains the lack of clear directions in the Universe and the fact that matter in space is distributed relatively uniformly. It is generally accepted that all observations have confirmed the isotropy and homogeneity of the Universe.
Cosmology
Cosmology (from the Greek kosmoV - kosmos - universe, logoV - logos - doctrine) is the science of space.
Cosmology is the science that studies the origin and evolution of the Universe as a whole. It is based on a set of empirical data and theoretical conclusions, which are based on fundamental physical theories - gravity, electromagnetic field (see Physical field), quantum mechanics, relativity and others. Objects located at a distance of more than 7-10 billion light years from Earth are objects located at cosmological distances.
Craters
Craters - On the surfaces of most cosmic bodies that do not have an atmosphere due to the lack of a dense atmosphere in them - asteroids, satellites of the large planets of the Solar System and the Moon, Mercury, craters were discovered - ring mountains with a diameter from several kilometers to several hundred kilometers. In some of these structures there is a small elevation called the "central hill." Scientists have discovered similar formations, but smoother due to the influence of the atmosphere on Earth, Venus and Mars. The bulk of such craters were formed in the initial stages of the development of the Solar System and are the result of impacts of cosmic bodies that had a large mass.
D
Dark Energy
Dark Energy - There is a hypothetical form of energy that has unusual properties that, within the framework of GRT, lead to the appearance of a comprehensive gravitational repulsion ("antigravity").
Date line
Date line - Based on international agreement, at midnight a new day begins here on Earth. It passes through the Arctic Ocean, along the meridian 172.50 east longitude, the Bering Strait and the Pacific Ocean far from populated areas. In the case of crossing this line from north to south, a person finds himself in an area in which the day is still ongoing, and when crossing from west to east, he immediately finds himself in that part of the planet where the coming day has already begun.
Declension
Declension - One of the most important equatorial coordinates is the angular distance between the celestial equator and the observed object. This letter indicates the angle, which is measured in angular degrees, minutes and seconds.
Deferent
Deferent - using Ptolemy's geocentric system, we can see the circle on which the epicycles move.
Determination of distances to space objects
Determination of distances to space objects - To determine the distances to the most distant objects in the universe, this method has been developed. Based on the results of research in the field of redshifts in the electromagnetic radiation spectra of relatively close galactic objects, the distances to which were measured by other methods, Hubble's law was formulated. As a result, it became possible to determine the distance to an object by the value of the redshift in its spectrum.
This method allows us to study the distribution of gas clouds in the intergalactic medium.
Absorption bands can be seen in the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation that comes to us from distant galactic sources, such as quasars. This happens in the case of electromagnetic radiation passing through intergalactic gas clouds. These clouds are located at different distances from the observer looking at it with the help of his vision. According to Hubble's law, the absorption lines characteristic of a certain gas contained in clouds have different redshifts. Due to the displacement of each of the lines, it is possible to determine the distance to specific clouds, and due to the width of the spectral lines, the power of these clouds by the observer's line of sight.
These intergalactic gas clouds are mainly composed of hydrogen. The effect, dubbed "Lyman alpha forest", was first discovered by observing one of the most intense spectral lines of hydrogen, called "lyman alpha", which is the strongest. During observations of distant radiation sources, it was found that this spectral absorption line is present at many wave frequencies. At the same time, it is registered as a series - "forest" of continuous absorption lines in the spectrum, which are separated by sections of the spectrum in which hydrogen is absent. This fact suggests that there are hydrogen-free zones between clouds located at a distance from the observer's eyes. The "forest" of discrete spectral absorption lines of intergalactic gas clouds, which may be not only hydrogen, but also others, may look different when observed from different angles. It is also possible to obtain a volumetric picture of the distribution of gas clouds in space.
In the meaning of parallax, or "parallel" (from the Greek parallaxis - parallax).
This is the oldest way to determine the distance to inaccessible or distant objects. Parallax is also meant.
This method was first used to determine the distances from the Earth to the Moon and the Sun. In addition, the maximum possible distances on Earth were used as a base - those that are comparable to the size of our planet. Subsequently, the distances to the Moon and the Sun were repeatedly clarified using radar methods.
The method that is used today was used for the first measurements of distances to stars. In these situations, segments comparable to the value of an astronomical unit were used for the base.
The most optimal distance to which this method can still be applied is 100 parsecs, since the angular size of the ellipse, which is described by a star located at this distance, is 0.01 arcseconds. This angle can be measured with existing instruments using minimal angles.
Based on radar data
Radar is a modern and fairly accurate way to measure distances from the Earth to the bodies of the Solar system. The data on the distance between the Earth and the Sun were clarified using radar. It turned out to be equal to 149597867.9 km or 0.9 km.
The adoption of Kepler's "third Law"
If the time of the planet's revolution around the Sun is known and its mass does not matter in comparison with the mass of the Sun, it is possible to calculate the major semi-axis of its orbit using Kepler's third law. Then, using the ratios of astrometry and celestial mechanics, it is easy to determine the distance from Earth to a given planet at any given time.
Application of the photometric method
Thanks to studies of nearby stars, the distances to which were measured by parallax, it was possible to detect the dependence of their absolute stellar magnitudes on the spectral or any other characteristics of these stars. Using a photometer to measure the magnitude of a star, you can find out the absolute magnitude of a star and determine the distance to it, since the luminous flux is inversely proportional to the square of the distance to the light source.
In recent years, the method of determining the distance to distant objects, such as galaxies and their clusters, using visual stellar magnitudes of supernovae of a certain type has become widely used. These new supernovae are distinguished by the presence of distinctive details in the spectra, as well as features of the brightness curves during flashes and are easily recognizable, whereas their luminosities at maximum brightness differ very little from each other.
The photovoltaic measurement method is also used to determine the distance to galaxies by measuring their surface brightness, which is more or less standard in certain types of such star systems.
The level of accuracy of determining the distance to the cepheids is a photometric method. At the same time, it stands out because its application has proven to be very effective in determining distances to star clusters and galaxies. It turned out that the luminosities, or, as they are also called, the absolute stellar magnitudes of these variable stars, are directly dependent on the period of change in their brightness. Cepheids were found in the systems of our galaxy and in the nearest galactic systems, thanks to this it was possible to determine the distance to these objects.
Determination of temperatures of space objects
Determination of temperatures of space objects - This method is based on finding the wavelength in the electromagnetic radiation spectrum of a space object that emits the maximum power. The body emits as a completely black body, which is quite normal for stars, and if we take into account that the radiation of an object has a wavelength in the range from maximum to minimum, then Wien's law unambiguously connects the temperature of the body with the wavelength of the maximum radiation in its spectrum.
Determination of the chemical composition of space objects
Determination of the chemical composition of space objects - Space objects studied using electromagnetic radiation spectra make it possible to determine their chemical composition by the presence of radiation or absorption lines in them. The indicators of the energy states of atoms and molecules depend on their chemical nature and physical characteristics. They have the ability to move from one state to another, using energy as certain quanta of electromagnetic radiation, which are peculiar to a certain chemical substance. This is due to the fact that each chemical element leaves its own "autograph" in the spectrum - dark or light lines and stripes that are located in strictly defined places.
Determination of the masses of space objects
Determination of the masses of space objects - At the beginning of solving this problem, the first step was taken, this is the determination of the mass of the Earth. The most difficult part of the work was calculating the radius of the Earth. To do this, it was necessary to carry out accurate geodetic measurements of the length of one degree of the arc of its meridian. Using the law of universal gravitation and knowing the measured value of the acceleration of free fall, it was possible to calculate the mass of the Earth. This fact allowed, in turn, using Kepler's third law, to first determine the mass of the Moon, and then use this value to determine the mass of the Sun. Due to the application of the same law that is already used to determine the mass of the Sun, it became possible to determine the mass of all the planets and their satellites in the Solar system.
It is generally believed that the mass composition of stars can be determined only by accurate and painstaking measurements of the relative position of the components of binary stars. They were determined using Kepler's third law, and after determining the mass of about 200 stars that were combined into stellar pairs, an unambiguous relationship between their mass and luminosity was found. This fact was confirmed, among other things, for stars whose mass was calculated by measuring the gravitational redshift of spectral lines in their electromagnetic waves, as described in the general theory of relativity. Now it is possible to determine the mass of almost any single star, except for white dwarfs and pulsar stars, by measuring its luminosity.
Types of estimation of the mass of star clusters. In the case of large-sized scattered star clusters, it is necessary to calculate the mass of their stars. When determining the masses of globular star clusters, which have narrow viewing zones in their central part and are often not available for observation, one should be guided by knowledge of their sizes, measurements of the velocity of the stars entering them and statistical methods.
There are different methods for determining the mass of galaxies, but they are all based on already known principles. In order to estimate the mass of galaxies, Kepler's third law is applied for interacting and mutually influencing galaxies; empirical relationships between the mass and luminosity of galaxies, as well as the speed of rotation of stars around the center of the galaxy and methods used to determine the masses of globular clusters are also used.
Determination of the proper velocities of a space object
Determination of the proper velocities of a space object - It is possible to divide the velocity of a space object into two components. The first is directed towards the observer's eye, i.e. directly towards or away from it, and the second, perpendicular to the first, is located on the celestial sphere. The second component is measured using an angle, and the first is measured using the Doppler effect, which is based on measuring line changes in the spectrum of the object under study. The generalization of these 2 vectors gives the cosmic body its own velocity.
Determining the size of space objects
Determining the size of space objects - If the dimensions of a space object can be measured, and its distance to another object is also known, then to determine the linear size it is necessary to solve the simplest geometric problem. Thus, the sizes of the Sun, planets, their satellites, star systems, galaxies, nebulae and other objects were determined. Based on this method, the sizes of a relatively small number of the closest and largest stars were calculated. Because of their peculiarities, their angular size was determined using special methods that include interferometers and analysis of the nature of light diffraction that occurs when these stars are covered by the Moon.
Another method is used to determine the size of the large majority of stars with very small angular dimensions, which means that they cannot be measured. It consists in the fact that the luminosity of a star can be determined by the known distance to the star and its apparent magnitude. Further, if you know its temperature and assume the presence of radiation in the form of a black star (in this case, the radiation flux from it is directly related to its temperature), then you can calculate the surface area of the star required for this flux, as well as its diameter.
Also, by analyzing the brightness curve of an eclipsing variable star, it is easy to determine the relative sizes of its two component stars, which alternately obscure each other.
Direct ascent
Direct ascent - One of the coordinates used in the equatorial system is the angle, which is measured in the direction of the annual movement of the Sun (or to the east) along the celestial equator from the point of the vernal equinox to the meridian, which passes through the pole of the world and the celestial body. It is measured in seconds, minutes and hours with a conventional dial. It is indicated by a letter that indicates the time, which is measured in minutes, seconds and hours.
Direct-to-Cell
Starlink's Direct to Cell technology is a technology that allows Starlink satellites to directly transmit a signal to smartphones without the need for traditional terrestrial cell towers. The feature solves the problem of lack of cellular connectivity in remote or inaccessible areas where coverage by standard cellular networks is usually not possible.
Direct-to-Device
DeviceAnywhere's unique Direct-to-Device™ technology provides access to real devices on live mobile networks in multiple countries from anywhere. DeviceAnywhere currently serves more than 2,000 devices, including smartphones and phicherphones, on more than 28 networks across multiple operators, including networks in the US, Canada, Brazil, UK, France, Germany and Spain.
Developers: DeviceAnywhere
Technology: Application development tools
Direct-to-Gateway
Direct-to-Gateway (Terminal) is the most widespread scheme for connecting devices to the satellite. Direct-to-Gateway (Terminal) is the most common scheme for connecting devices to the satellite, where various sensors and terminal devices, measuring parameters (temperature, pressure, gas content, humidity, vibration, radiation, light, acceleration, etc.) do not have a direct connection to the satellite and through various interfaces (wired: Ethernet; Ethernet; acceleration, etc.). interfaces (wired: Ethernet; wireless: Bluetooth, NFC, Wi-Fi) transmit the data to the terminal, which already has components for generating and emitting a radio signal for satellites (wired: Ethernet; wireless: Bluetooth, NFC, Wi-Fi) radio signal for satellites (modulators, power amplifiers, controllers, antennas, etc.).
Disk of Galaxy
A galaxy disk is a flat star-gas subsystem that resides in a rotating galaxy. The content of the disk includes almost all interstellar gas and young stars.
Dissipation
Dissipation - in a broad sense, dissipation is the process of reducing the amount of energy, for example, in the process of its utilization. In astrophysics, dissipation is the process by which gases from the atmosphere of space objects escape. Thermal velocities of molecules can exceed the second space velocity, which is the cause of it. Dissipation and volatilization are easiest for those gases whose molecules have smaller molecular weights. As a result, volatile gases such as hydrogen and helium are virtually absent from the atmospheres of the Earth-group planets, which have relatively weak gravitational fields.
Doppler effect
The Doppler effect is the change in oscillation frequency or wavelength perceived by an observer as a result of the movement of the wave source and the observer relative to each other. Usually, in optical astronomy, this relationship is denoted by a symbol or letter and is called "redshift" when the source is at a considerable distance from the observer, and "blue-shift" if the source is approaching.
Doppler shift
Doppler shift - spectral lines may be shifted due to the Doppler effect.
Dwarf
The dwarf is a main sequence star, has small sizes (from 1 to 0.01) and low luminosity.
E
Eccentricity
Eccentricity - Numerically, it is possible to determine the characteristic of the orbit of a celestial body (or spacecraft), which shows its elongation. Eccentricity affects how the ellipse along which the celestial body flies is curved. In the event that it is zero, then the orbit is circular. Usually, the orbits of satellites and planets have a low eccentricity value, which is typical for large satellites and satellite systems. For example, only Mercury, of all the planets in the Solar System, is large enough for its ellipticity to be easily discernible by eye.
Eclipse
Eclipse - A case where all or part of the light from one body is obscured by another body between the first body and the observer. Such an example is solar eclipses.
Eclipse double (star)
Eclipse double (star) - A double star is observed in which the orbits of the components are arranged so that, when viewed from Earth, each of the two stars passes sequentially in front of the other.
Eclipsing variable stars
Eclipsing variable stars - Double variable stars, or eclipsed stars, are double stars whose orbital curves are inclined at a small angle to the observer's line of sight, which creates conditions for mutual coverage of the stars. In the case of coverings, in which one of the stars covers the other from the observer, he can observe a decrease in the overall brightness of the stars.
Electromagnetic field
Electromagnetic field - The territory of space, which includes electric and magnetic fields.
Electromagnetic interaction
Electromagnetic interaction - The interaction that occurs between charged particles, and which have an electric charge. This is the second most powerful of the four fundamental interactions.
Electromagnetic radiation (Electromagnetic waves)
Electromagnetic radiation (Electromagnetic waves) - Any movement of electric charges causes electromagnetic radiation. Depending on the conditions, it can exhibit both wave and corpuscular properties. This is a quantum of electromagnetic radiation, which is called a photon. With the help of electromagnetic radiation, it is possible to achieve the maximum propagation velocity in nature (see the speed of light). The direct range of its spectral range (see Spectrum) covers gamma rays through X-rays, ultraviolet radiation, visible light, infrared radiation, visible energy and radio waves. In the absence of cosmic rays, which have a lower speed of movement and, accordingly, have less informative value, electromagnetic radiation is for us the only source of information about distant objects in the Universe.
Content
Non–thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation that occurs under nonequilibrium physical conditions when there is no thermodynamic equilibrium. It does not differ in any way from thermal (see here) or electromagnetic radiation, except for some features in its spectral composition. His behavior does not comply with the laws of Wine, Planck and Stefan-Boltzmann.
Data on three types of its generation mechanisms have been published.
Non-thermal radiation occurs as a result of the movement of relativistic particles in physical fields (see Physical fields; Synchrotron radiation). Here you can observe clusters of relativistic particles that are located near pulsars and supernova remnants.
The next mechanism that contributes to its appearance is associated with unstable and large-scale processes in plasma (see Plasma) objects or their fragments. This mechanism is the reason why non-thermal radio emission from the solar corona takes place.
In the third variant, non-thermal radiation occurs as a result of the energy of thermal motion of particles of matter, which are electrons. This phenomenon is similar to what happens when thermal radiation occurs, but there is no thermodynamic equilibrium here. This, for example, can happen if the substance manages to accumulate most of the energy before equilibrium is reached.
Heating.
Thermal electromagnetic radiation, which occurs due to the energy of thermal movement of particles of matter, mainly electrons, is called thermal radiation. At the same time, the emitting object must be in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium, which assumes a constant temperature (see Temperature) distribution throughout the entire volume of the substance being studied. Surface thermal radiation does not differ from radiation that has a different spectral composition (see Spectrum). Thermal radiation has properties described by the laws of Wien, Planck and Stefan-Boltzmann.
Energy
Energy (from the Greek energia - action, activity) is the ability to perform activities that are aimed at carrying out actions.
One of the two forms of existence of matter is energy.
In a material system, energy is a quantity that is equal to the amount of work reserve, as a physical concept, which is contained in a particular system.
It is impossible to imagine the universe without the existence of energy.
Despite this, in the absence of its absence, the substance would be absolutely motionless and would have a temperature equal to absolute zero. Despite this, the question of the possibility of the existence of the substance itself in such conditions remains open. The simplest particles would not be able to combine into atoms, since all physical fields with an energetic nature would have to be absent. It is possible that the existence of the elementary particles themselves is highly questionable due to the lack of reliable data on their structure and what causes quarks to combine. In another sense, it is likely that matter in our understanding cannot exist without energy. Like energy without matter.
Energy has many different manifestations. Of these, the following types of energy can be distinguished: mechanical, electromagnetic, gravitational, nuclear, thermal, etc. They can transform into each other, but the total amount of energy does not decrease - there is a law of conservation of energy. This law applies to all processes that take place in the universe, and allows us to consider them in their entirety.
With any energy conversion, some part of it will be used to heat the substance, which means that the thermal - internal - energy of the system, which is the internal energy of the body, increases. Energy of any type, including energy of any kind of energy, can be converted into heat without residue, but at the same time it cannot completely transfer into energy of its other types. Through heat exchange, it promotes the use of ambient heat and matter outside the system. In real conditions, no system in which activities are carried out can be completely isolated from the environment. Any conversion of energy from one type to another necessarily leads to an increase in the share of thermal energy.
It follows from this that the amount of energy in the universe is constantly increasing, which cannot perform physical work. The amount of increase in a given internal or thermal energy increases with increasing entropy. It follows from this that in the foreseeable future, after a sufficiently long period of time, the "thermal death of the Universe" will occur. At the same time, almost all types of energy, except field energy, will be converted into thermal energy. The temperature of all matter in the universe will become equal.
As you know, according to the famous Einstein ratio, matter is a huge reservoir of energy. Despite this, there is no probability of its natural or artificial activation on any significant scale. An event of this kind could only take place at the moment of annihilation, but this is prevented by a shortage of antimatter, which was caused by the baryon asymmetry that appeared at the early stage of the Big Bang.
Epicycles
Epicycles - The word "epicycles" comes from the Greek word epi - over, and kyklos - circle, cycle.
The circles in which the planets are supposed to move. According to the ideas, the epicycle centers should rotate around the Earth in other circles - deferents. To explain the features of the movement of planets in orbits around stars in the geocentric system of the world, a hypothesis was put forward about their existence.
Era
Era - With the help of a certain point in time, which is used by astronomers to indicate the values of various variables, this makes it possible to compare them (for example, the coordinates of the starry sky, the orientation of planetary orbits, the periods of rotation of the Earth). At the moment, the standard epoch J2000 is used in astronomy. She was spotted at noon on January 1, 2000 (January 1.5, 2000 = JD 2451545.0).
Ergosphere
Ergosphere - The region around the Kerr black hole is located between the static limit and the outer event horizon, where it is impossible to be at rest.
Event
Event - The existence of a point in space-time.
Event horizon
Event horizon - from the observer's point of view, the event horizon is the set of those places in spacetime around the black hole where, from his point of view, time stands still.
Exo
Exo (translated from Greek means outside). Part of the complex words that relate to the concepts of external and internal.
Exobiology
Exobiology - A scientific field dedicated to the study of extraterrestrial life and the influence of cosmic factors on our lives.
Extragalactic objects
Extragalactic objects - in fact, they were objects outside of our Galaxy (Milky Way system).
Extraterrestrial civilizations
Extraterrestrial civilizations - if we consider all civilizations other than those that exist on our planet, they are called extraterrestrial civilizations.
Calculating the order of the number of civilizations in the Universe can be done in several ways, which include the product of several factors: the number of stars in the Universe, the fraction of galaxies that have giant planets, the fraction of planetary systems where life has been detected, and the fraction of biospheres that have reached the level of civilization. In fact, the uncertainty of the result is a consequence of the uncertainties in the values of the factors. If one wishes to estimate the number of civilizations with which contact can be attempted, three other factors must be considered: the fraction of civilizations that have reached a high technical level; the fraction of those that wish to make contact with other civilizations; and the ratio of the time of existence of a technologically advanced civilization to the time of existence of second-generation stars containing the chemical elements formed in their first generation. Because the values of these factors are uncertain, it is not yet possible to estimate the probable number of extraterrestrial civilizations. Therefore, we should not expect one in the foreseeable future.
Indicators of the external manifestations of civilizations depend on the level of development of science and technology, which affects the amount of energy that is used for the benefit of communities. It has become possible to make a simple classification of the level of development of civilizations based on the amount of energy they use. These levels have three levels: the first level is 1013 watts, which means the level of consumption that has been achieved on Earth; the second level is 4*1017 watts, which means that all the energy of its central star is used; the third level is 4*1030 watts, which means that all the energy of the galaxy is used.
There are all possible civilizations which have no desire to communicate with their own kind. However, at their high degree of development, they must emit powerful electromagnetic waves in the infrared and radio range. Their registration is quite probable with the help of methods of astrophysics. As an example, thanks to radio and television stations, the radiation emitted by the Earth is now comparable in power to that of the Sun, and the emission of infrared radiation is inevitably associated with the use of any kind of energy for any kind of activity. However, despite this, all attempts to detect manifestations of technological activity of extraterrestrial civilizations have not yet been successful.
It should be borne in mind that even at the moment the age of the Earth's highly developed civilization has not reached 150 years. At this time, internal combustion engine machines, steam engines and water propulsion engines, and electricity began to be widely used. This period of time, during which it can be visible to extraterrestrial observers by being a comparable source of radio emission to the Sun, is only 50 years. This time radiation from terrestrial radio and television stations has been concentrated to only one thousandth of the radius of our galaxy. Consequently, it is possible that our civilization has not yet been detected by representatives of other civilizations for the same reasons that we ourselves have: because of the lack of visible manifestations of the activities of our brethren in reason.
There is no doubt that the emergence of mind is one of the natural stages of the development of matter. If we take this hypothesis into account, we can assume the existence of extraterrestrial civilizations in the future.
F
Fraunhofer lines
Fraunhofer lines - Absorption lines, which can be observed against the background of a continuous spectrum of the Sun and stars, have dark lines.
Fullerenes
Fullerenes - The word "Fullerenes" was given in honor of the American architect R. B. Fuller, who in 1895-1983 developed a project to create openwork domed structures that could be built using a combination of five and hexagons.
The third, recently discovered allotropic form of carbon, was named fullerene. Up to this point, only two of them were known - graphite and diamond. Fullerene is a microstructure of carbon atoms that form a spherical structure with a cavity inside.
There is a minimum number of carbon atoms that make up fullerene. However, there may be more of them - 70, 76, 78, 84, 90, 94, 96 etc. The more atoms of carbon material used in the construction of fullerene, the larger its volume of the cavity inside.
In the case when a fullerene is formed from carbon atoms, any other molecules or atoms can be “closed” in its cavity, as in a closed vessel.
The molecules trapped in the meteorites were found inside and found that they formed during their formation many hundreds of millions, and possibly several billion years ago. Thus, it became possible to study “preserved” samples of the substance that made up the Solar System during the formation of certain fullerenes.
Future
Future - this region of space-time in which the world lines of material objects are located.
G
Galactic equator
The galactic equator is a large circle of the celestial sphere located along the Milky Way and having the same distance as the galactic poles.
Galaxies
Inner galaxies are (outside the Milky Way) extragalactic nebulae.
Galaxies are defined as huge star systems outside of our own galaxy (the Milky Way system). Their composition includes many stars, their number can reach 10 trillion pieces; their clusters and the end results of their evolution (see Stars, evolution); clouds of gas and dust, which are the result of the interaction of magnetic and gravitational fields, as well as electromagnetic radiation, which is the source of energy for charged particles.
Many, many billions of galaxies have been discovered through the use of the largest telescopes in the world. They are located here.
The largest of the galaxies are 30-40 thousand parsecs in diameter, and the smallest are 1,000 times smaller. The masses of these objects can vary within a million times, whereas for stars the ratio is about a thousand times.
90% of the total number of galaxies are organized into clusters. In general, the space around us is filled with stellar galaxies with a much higher relative density than galaxies on average. The average distance between stars and galaxies is 20 million times their diameter, while the interstellar distance is 10-20 times smaller than their size. Because of this, gravitationally interacting galaxies can often be observed.
Many galaxies have different shapes and sizes, but several basic morphological types can be distinguished: elliptical (see here), spiral (see here), lens-shaped (see here), and irregular (see here).
It should be remembered that when we observe distant galaxies and quasars, sources of gamma-ray and X-ray bursts that are billions of light-years away (see Light-year), we find ourselves in the past tense. We are presented with a picture of the stage of development of the Universe that took place billions of years ago, when the electromagnetic radiation that was created by these objects began its journey through space. It is worth noting that in those distant Worlds, people are also observing the place in the Universe where we are now, and can visualize it as it was billions of years ago.
Despite the possibility of seeing the past, modern technical means do not allow us to fully understand the mechanisms of the origin of galaxies. We can now say with certainty that the conditions for the birth of galaxies were conditioned by a variety of conditions for their formation.
Galaxies, which later became spiral galaxies, arose from gas-dust clouds that possessed significant moments of the quantity of motion - rotation reserves and compression centers. The initial stages of their evolution are probably similar to those through which our Galaxy passed (see Galaxy (Milky Way system, structure).
Clouds of gas that lacked rotation gave rise to elliptical galaxies. The lack of rotation slowed their development, as all the gases in them were channeled to form the first generation of stars. The gas which was ejected by them in the absence of rotation of galaxies, in the absence of rotation of planets descends to the centers of such star systems and is used without remainder for the formation of stars of the second generation. As a consequence, elliptical galaxies, unlike spiral galaxies, do not have a flat component, but possess only a spherical system.
Similarly, irregular galaxies have arisen from clouds of gas with spin reserve and without the presence of condensations at their center.
We can assume that the mass of the protogalactic gas cloud also had a great influence on the appearance of the nascent galaxy. Most likely, there is some genetic connection between quasars and young galaxies. In many centers of several dozen galaxies found giant black holes. They have an array of more than a million solar masses. It has also been observed that these objects are present only in those galactic systems that have a "bulge" (see Galaxy (Milky Way system, balloon) at the center). At the same time, as a rule of thumb, the mass of a black hole is about 0.2% of the mass of the galactic "bloat". Nevertheless, there are still too many uncertainties and questions that need answers about the evolution of galaxies.
There are three galaxies within sight: the Andromeda Nebula, the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds, which are visible to the naked eye. Nearly forty galaxies can be observed with a small telescope. Their main part is concentrated in the northern hemisphere of the starry sky."
Gamma rays
Gamma rays - photons with energies that are several times the energy of X-ray photons. This is the most powerful form of electromagnetic radiation.
General theory of relativity
General theory of relativity - Einstein developed a theory based on the idea that the laws of science should be the same for all people, regardless of how they move. The existence of gravitational interaction in GR is explained by the fact that space and time in four-dimensional spacetime are curved.
Geodetic line
A geodesic is the shortest path that connects two points in curved spacetime. In flat spacetime, a geodesic is a straight line.
Geoid
A geoid is a view that has to do with the Earth.
The image that most accurately represents the shape of the Earth, but is different from a sphere. To date, the geoid is not a correct stereometric figure. Its surface coincides almost entirely with the surface of the world's oceans, and its distribution covers the entire continental part of our planet. In geographical terms, the altitude above sea level for a particular point on earth is counted from its surface.
Geosynchronous orbit
A geosynchronous orbit is an orbit in which an object is in constant proximity to the same point on the Earth while traveling along it. Hydrostationary is when it is above the equator.
Giant
A giant is an object that has a much larger luminosity and size than most stars of the same spectral class. As stars increase in size and luminosity, they are called supergiants.
Globular cluster
Globular cluster - This cluster differs from the scattered cluster by a large number of stars, their high concentration towards the center of the cluster and a much later age comparable to the age of the Galaxy.
Globules
Globules are small gas-dusty interstellar clouds that contain molecular hydrogen at temperatures of 10-50 K. They can be seen as dark spots against the bright background of the Milky Way because the dust completely absorbs the light that is emitted by the stars and the bright nebulae behind them.
Gnomon
The gnomon is one of the oldest astronomical instruments, which is a vertical pole. The shadow it casts on the surface of the earth makes it possible to determine the direction to the north. According to the time, which corresponds to noon local time, its shadow from the sun, which is at the southern point and at the upper culmination of its activity, is directed to the north and has a minimum length on this day. According to scientists it was the gnomon that became the prototype of the sundial.
GPS
GPS (Global Positioning System) is a satellite navigation system that allows you to locate a device with a GPS receiver on Earth and in near-Earth space. GPS receivers are built into smartphones, tablets, smartwatches and many other devices. In open terrain, these devices can pinpoint their location to within 1-2 metres.
Gravitational antenna
Gravitational antenna - a portable instrument that is designed to detect gravitational waves.
Gravitational lens
Gravitational lens - the distortion of an object's image caused by the effects of a strong gravitational field is called a gravitational lens.
Gravitational redshift
With gravitational redshift, the frequency of electromagnetic waves changes as they move away from massive objects. It can be used to find out their intrinsic velocity.
Gravity
Gravity - this fact is an example of attraction of material objects to each other.
Gravity maneuver
A gravity maneuver is an action to increase or decrease the velocity of a spacecraft as it passes near a massive body. Gravitational maneuvers are the basis for many spacecraft used for deep space exploration.
Gravity wave
Gravity wave - a fragment of space-time that travels at the speed of light.
Gray Hole (Q-star)
Gray Hole (Q-star) - A Q star, or Gray Hole, is a hypothetical type of compact and heavy neutron star with an unusual state of matter. According to experts, the term "Q-star" should not be mistaken for a "quark star", since its name does not contain the letter combination "quark", but a conserved quantum number - an electric charge.
Ground
Ground - Planet Earth is the third farthest from the Sun in the Solar System. It is the largest, fifth largest in size and mass of all the planets in the Solar System, and the largest among the planets of the terrestrial group, which includes Mercury, Venus, and Mars.
Guilt law
Guilt law - there is a law that was named after the German physicist Wilhelm Karl Werner Wien (W. K. V. Wien) born 1864-1928.
According to this law, the wavelength at which the maximum power of electromagnetic radiation produced by a heated body is inversely proportional to its temperature.
With the help of Wien's law of displacement, it is possible to determine at which wavelength the maximum of the radiation spectrum of a radiating body falls, and vice versa, knowing the distribution of energy in the radiation spectrum of a radiating object, it is possible to determine its temperature.
H
Heavenly
Heavenly - Celestial mechanics studies the laws of motion of celestial bodies in order to find the elements of their orbits and determine their positions in these orbits at any given time.
A celestial sphere is an imaginary sphere of arbitrary radius, in the center of which the observer is located, called a celestial sphere. It can be used to determine the coordinates of celestial points, lines, circles and planes: zenith, nadir, poles of the world, axis of the world, celestial horizon, celestial meridian, ecliptic, etc., which are the basis for spherical astronomy and astrometry.
Height
Height is an angular coordinate of the horizontal coordinate system.
Hertzsprung-Russell diagram
Hertzsprung-Russell diagram - a diagram showing the relationship between the temperature and luminosity of stars.
Hertzsprung-Russell diagram
The Hertzsprung-Russell diagram is an example of the relationship between the color (or spectral class) and stars luminosity of different types.
Hill's Sphere
Hill's Sphere - The gap of space around a cosmic body in which it can hold its satellite, ignoring the attraction of the object around which it rotates.
Hubble's law
Hubble's law - This fact is the relationship between the redshift value for distant galaxies and the distance to them.
Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere includes all water that is in liquid, solid, and gaseous states. The hydrosphere includes water from oceans, seas, and underground springs. Water is present in the atmosphere and living organisms.
The proportion of the hydrosphere that is more than 96% is seas and oceans, about 2% is groundwater and about 2% is snow and ice. 0.02% is land surface water.
Hypersphere
Hypersphere - this object represents a sphere in a hypothetical multidimensional space.
I
IIoT
The Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) refers to the use of smart sensors, actuators, and other devices, including radio frequency identification tags, to enhance manufacturing and industrial processes. These devices are interconnected to gather, share, and analyse data, which can improve process efficiency and reliability. IIoT, also known as the Industrial Internet, is being used in various industrial sectors, such as manufacturing, energy management, utilities, and oil and gas.
It harnesses the power of smart machines and real-time analytics to apply data that 'dumb' machines have been generating for years in industrial settings. The concept of IIoT is that intelligent machines are more efficient at collecting and analysing data in real-time than humans. They also provide valuable information that can be used to make faster and more accurate business decisions.
Connected sensors and actuators allow companies to detect inefficiencies and problems earlier, saving time and money, as well as simplifying the business analysis process. In particular, in the manufacturing sector, IIoT can provide quality control, sustainable and green production, supply chain tracking, and increase overall supply chain efficiency. In the industry, IIoT plays a key role in processes such as predictive maintenance, advanced field maintenance, energy management and asset tracking.
Information
Information - The direct translation of the word information is an explanation.
Information is the ability of matter to preserve and transmit the properties (characteristics) of matter in its manifestations - physical objects, processes and, as a result, products of the human mind. The most common form of information presentation is its representation in the form of an image of the state, dynamics and evolution of material objects in the past, present or future.
The information is based on the physical characteristics of a substance or energy. As an example, one can cite the annual rings of tree trunks that report seasonal weather conditions. Electromagnetic radiation also stores and distributes information about the chemical composition of the star that emitted it, and the book stores information that a person has received or created.
From the very beginning, information was considered as a set of information or signals that are used for exchange between humans and other living organisms, as well as various technical devices.
It should be emphasized that in this context of discussing the concept and nature of information, the possibility of information exchange is important. It should include the source and consumer of the information. If the source of information can be both a living and inanimate object, then the consumers of information can be objects that were originally created by living intelligent beings, such as humans.
Information comes with life, but is meaningless as a term in inanimate nature.
As a result, it can be concluded that information exchange is impossible in the absence of life, just as life cannot exist without information exchange, starting from the chromosome level. In this regard, information exchange should be considered as a fundamental property of matter responsible for the appearance and existence of life in the universe.
Inner (lower) planets
Inner (lower) planets - at the moment, these are the two planets Mercury and Venus. Due to the fact that their orbits are inside the Earth's orbits, they are always closer to the Sun than the Earth.
Insolation
Insolation - The term 'insolation' comes from the Latin insolatio - to expose to the sun. Any body can be exposed to a stream of electromagnetic radiation emanating from the sun.
Interference fringes
Interference fringes - When waves mutually annihilate or increase in two light beams that merge, dark and light stripes are formed.
Interferometer
Interferometer - The term "interferometer" refers to an instrument that has either two optical inputs (e.g., a periscopic system) or two radiation receivers that are spaced as far apart as possible. By matching the phase difference of the electromagnetic radiation that arrives at them, a higher resolving power than any telescope can be obtained. In fact, it is greater than the distance between the optical inputs or receivers of radiation, which is called the base of the interferometer. With optical interferometers, a base of 15 meters can be achieved.
This gives a resolution of up to 0.001 angular seconds, allowing accurate measurement of the linear dimensions of the most distant stars. In addition, there is the Keck telescope. Let us assume that in the case of radio interferometers, the base can be larger than the diameter of the Earth if the two antennas are mounted on different spacecraft. At the same time, the resolution could be as high as 0.00003 arc second.
Intergalactic medium
Intergalactic medium - Our space is filled with gas, which is the intergalactic medium. Its average density is less than 1 atom per cubic decimeter, yet the total mass of intergalactic gas may be greater than the mass contained in all stars.
Its climate is in the range of 10 million degrees Celsius, and it is heated by the stellar wind and the bursting shells of supernovae (see Stars, supernovae), which may be called the galactic wind or the electromagnetic radiation that results from the accretion of matter on black holes.
There is a large portion of interstellar gas that is concentrated in intergalactic clouds, which have significant differences from each other in density and temperature.
The chemical composition of intergalactic gas is endlessly varied. Among the objects found in the intergalactic medium have been hydrogen, helium, carbon and nitrogen atoms, oxygen, sulfur, and various metals. This is the reason why much of the intergalactic gas has been ejected from galaxies, and it is the product of the recycling of matter in the interior of stars (see Stars, evolution).
Through the study of the intergalactic medium, various problems related to the study of the evolution of the universe can be solved. The spectrum of intergalactic gas can be observed in the background of galaxies or other objects. When observing any thing, we see it as it was when the electromagnetic radiation left them. Radiation that has come from quasars that are billions of light years away from us gives a glimpse of what they were like billions of years ago. All gas clouds from quasar to Earth are in the field of view, allowing us to study their state over a wide range of time, and to obtain information about the evolution of the properties of intergalactic gas over many billions of years. The most likely way to relate individual gas clusters to their distance in light-years is to use the redshift of their spectrum lines. As a result, it may be possible to gain insight into how processes in the universe have evolved.
Interior Lagrange point
Interior Lagrange point - the level of the limiting Roche curve in a double star system is the point between the two parts of the limiting curve (surface).
Interstellar dust
Interstellar dust - The solid microscopic particles that are part of the interstellar medium and are responsible for interstellar light absorption are known as interstellar dust. Interstellar dust particles range in size from 0.01 to 0.2 microns. Dust particles are likely to have a solid core (graphite, silicon, or metal) surrounded by organic matter or an ice shell.
Interstellar gas
Interstellar gas is an extremely rarefied gas that fills the space between stars and is the main component of the interstellar medium. It consists of 90% hydrogen and 10% helium, with minor amounts of more complex elements.
Interstellar light absorption
Interstellar light absorption - Interstellar light absorption is the process by which there is a reduction in the intensity of radiation that travels through the interstellar medium. The propagation and absorption of light is mainly determined by dust, which is part of the interstellar medium and is therefore most important toward the dense gas-dusty interstellar clouds that are concentrated in the disk of the Galaxy.
Interstellar medium
Interstellar medium - The means of the interstellar medium account for less than 1% of the mass in elliptical galaxies, about 5% in spiral galaxies, and about 10% in irregular galaxies.
Interval
Interval - Between two events there is a so-called “distance” - a gap in space-time between them.
Invariant
Invariant - This quantity has the same value for all observers, regardless of their state of motion.
Ion engine
An ion engine is a power unit that uses the acceleration of ionized gas in an electric field to create thrust. It is characterized by a relatively low force and a very high specific impulse (i.e., low fuel consumption).
IoT
The IoT (Internet of Things) is a global network of physical objects that use the Internet to exchange data and interact with each other. These objects can be equipment, vehicles, home devices and other things that are embedded in the network using electronic, software, electromechanical and information interfaces.
The main goal of IOT is to manage objects efficiently and create new ways of interaction between objects and humans. Through the use of IOT, objects can monitor, control and exchange information to improve the performance of various systems and processes.
IOT utilises various technologies to collect and transmit data such as RFID, sensors, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi and other wireless data protocols. As a result, IOT can be applied in many fields such as industry, healthcare, urban planning, energy, transport, etc.
The main advantages of IOT are:
1. Improved efficiency and productivity.
2. Cost reduction.
3. Improved quality of life.
4. Development of new business models and services.
5. Improving security and control.
However, IOT also has its disadvantages and challenges such as:
1. Security and privacy of data.
2. Complex management systems and integration.
3. Need to develop new standards and protocols.
4. Complexity of support and maintenance.
Isotropy
Isotropy - A property in which the characteristics are the same in all directions.
J
JAXA
Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)
Достигаем космические рубежи
Для того чтобы результаты исследований и разработок JAXA были включены в социальную систему и продолжали приносить пользу, важно из года в год накапливать результаты и продолжать добиваться успеха. Чтобы обеспечить реализацию этого среднесрочного и долгосрочного плана и выполнить свою роль, мы разделяем следующие пять концепций с нашими сотрудниками и хотим быть организацией, которая продолжает принимать вызовы. Как люди и члены общества, мы стремимся создать рабочее место, полное приветствия и сострадания, где мы способствуем успеху друг друга, уважая индивидуальность наших коллег и разделяя их мысли и чувства. Осознавая связь между работой и обществом, мы чувствуем, что вносим свой вклад в развитие Японии, ее народа и международного сообщества благодаря нашей работе в аэрокосмической отрасли. Как профессионалы аэрокосмической отрасли мы приобретаем способность к самосозиданию и стремимся совершенствовать свои навыки планирования, исследований и разработок, выполнения проектов и организационного управления, чтобы реализовать свои идеи. Принимать вызов инициатив в области космоса и аэронавтики и действовать честно и с гордостью, осознавая свою ответственность за вклад в развитие общества. Ценить небольшие ежедневные успехи, сохраняя при этом взгляд с высоты птичьего полета и долгосрочную перспективу. Вносить вклад в жизнь, экономику и безопасность народа Японии и в решение международных проблем, распространяя мудрость и результаты, полученные в ходе аэрокосмической деятельности, в обществе и сотрудничая с другими организациями. Являясь основным агентством, которое поддерживает использование космических разработок во всем правительстве с помощью технологий, JAXA будет с гордостью выполнять свою повседневную работу, продолжая принимать вызовы в области космоса и аэронавтики.| 2016 (Хэйсэй 28) | Декабрь | Запуск спутника геокосмического исследования «Арасе» (ERG) на борту ракеты-носителя No2 «Эпсилон» |
| Запуск ракеты-носителя H-IIB No6 (HTV6) | ||
| Июль | Астронавт Ониси отправляется в длительное пребывание на корабле «Союз» (47S/MS-01) на Международной космической станции (вернулся в Японию в октябре 2016 года) | |
| Февраль | Запуск рентгеновского астрономического спутника «Хитоми» (ASTRO-H) на ракете-носителе No30 H-IIA | |
| 2015 (Хэйсэй 27) | Декабрь | Марсоход «Акацуки» (PLANET-C) успешно выведен на орбиту вокруг Венеры |
| Ноябрь | Запуск ракеты-носителя Telstar 12 VANTAGE на ракете-носителе H-IIA No29 (расширенная спецификация) | |
| Август | Ракета-носитель No 5 H-IIB запускает к космической станции корабль снабжения «Конотори-5» (HTV5). | |
| Июль | Успешные летные испытания второй фазы экспериментального проекта Low Sonic Boom Design Proof of Concept Project (D-SEND#2) | |
| Астронавт Юи отправляется в длительное пребывание на борту корабля «Союз» (43С/ТМА-17М) (вернулся в Японию на корабле «Союз» в декабре 2015 года) | ||
| Апрель | Переход к национальному агентству по исследованиям и разработкам и организационная реструктуризация | |
| 2014 (Хэйсэй 26) | Декабрь | В Токио прошел 21-й Форум Азиатско-Тихоокеанского космического агентства (APRSAF-21) |
| Запуск ракеты-носителя «Хаябуса-2» ракетой-носителем No 26 H-IIA | ||
| Май | Запуск перспективного спутника наблюдения за Землей-2 «DAICHI-2» (ALOS-2) на борту ракеты-носителя H-IIA No24 | |
| Астронавт Ваката, выполнивший миссию первого в Азии командира 38/39-й экспедиции Международной космической станции, возвращается на Землю | ||
| Март | Астронавт Ваката стал первым в Азии командиром Международной космической станции | |
| Февраль | Запуск спутника GPM Core, оснащенного двухчастотным радаром осадков (DPR), на ракете-носителе H-IIA No23 | |
| 2013 (Хэйсэй 25) | Ноябрь | Астронавт Ваката отправляется в длительное пребывание на корабле «Союз» (37С/ТМА-11М) на Международной космической станции (вернулся в Японию на корабле «Союз» в мае 2014 года) |
| Октябрь | «Исследуй, чтобы реализовать» — новый корпоративный слоган. | |
| Сентябрь | Запуск спутника планетарного спектроскопического наблюдения «Хисаки» (SPRINT-A) на испытательной ракете-носителе «Эпсилон» | |
| Август | Пуск ракеты-носителя H-IIB No4 «KOUNOTORI» 4 (HTV4) | |
| 2012 (Хэйсэй 24) | Июль | Запуск ракеты-носителя H-IIB No3 транспортной ракеты-носителя Kounotori (HTV3) |
| Астронавт Акихико Хосидэ отправляется в длительное пребывание на борту корабля «Союз» (31С/ТМА-05М) на Международной космической станции (вернулся на корабле «Союз» в ноябре 2012 года) | ||
| Май | Запуск ракеты-носителя H-IIA No 21 первого спутника наблюдения за водным циклом «SHIZUKU» (GCOM-W1) и малого демонстрационного спутника «SDS-4» типа 4 | |
| Февраль | Внедрение экспериментального самолета «Хишо» (Cessna Type 680) | |
| 2011 (Хэйсэй 23) | Июль | Три кандидата в астронавты (Юи, Ониши и Канаи) сертифицированы как астронавты на борту МКС |
| Июнь | Астронавт Сатоси Фурукава отправляется в длительное пребывание на корабле "Союз" (ТМА-02М/27С) (вернулся в Японию на корабле "Союз" в ноябре 2011 года) | |
| Апрель | Создан Центр летных исследований аэропорта Нагои. | |
| Январь | Запуск ракеты-носителя H-IIB No2 транспортной ракеты-носителя Kounotori (HTV2) | |
| 2010 (Хэйсэй 22) | Сентябрь | Запуск первого квазизенитного спутника «Митибики» на ракете-носителе H-IIA No18 |
| Июнь | Исследователь астероидов «Хаябуса» (MUSES-C) вернулся на Землю | |
| Май | Запуск зонда Венеры «Акацуки» (PLANET-C) и малого демонстратора парусов на солнечных батареях «IKAROS» на борту ракеты-носителя H-IIA No 17 | |
| Апрель | Астронавт Наоко Ямадзаки участвует в миссии STS-131/19A на борту шаттла «Дискавери» | |
| 2009 (Хэйсэй 21) | Декабрь | Астронавт Соити Ногучи отправляется в длительное пребывание на корабле "Союз" (ТМА-17/21С) на Международной космической станции (вернулся на корабле "Союз" в июне 2010 года) |
| Сентябрь | Запуск первого демонстратора технологии HTV корабля снабжения космической станции «KOUNOTORI» (демонстратор технологии HTV) на ракете-испытателе H-IIB | |
| Март~Июль | Астронавт Коити Ваката прикрепляет к Международной космической станции (МКС) внекорабельную экспериментальную платформу японского экспериментального модуля «Кибо». После первого длительного пребывания на МКС впервые в Японии он вернулся на борту космического челнока «Индевор» | |
| Январь | Запуск спутника наблюдения за парниковыми газами «ИБУКИ» (GOSAT) на борту ракеты-носителя No15 H-IIA | |
| 2008 г. | Июнь | Астронавт Акихико Хосидэ поднимается на борт космического челнока «Дискавери» и прикрепляет бортовую лабораторию и роботизированную руку японского экспериментального модуля «Кибо» к Международной космической станции (МКС) |
| Март | Астронавт Такао Дои поднимается на борт шаттла «Индевор» и присоединяет хранилище японского экспериментального модуля «Кибо» к Международной космической станции (МКС) | |
| Февраль | Запуск спутника сверхскоростного интернета «Кизуна» (WINDS) на борту ракеты-носителя No14 H-IIA | |
| «Взять в небо и открыть Вселенную» было решено в качестве корпоративного послания. | ||
| 2007 (Хэйсэй 19) | Сентябрь | Запуск лунного орбитального корабля «Кагуя» (SELENE) на ракете-носителе No13 H-IIA |
| Февраль | Запуск двух разведывательных спутников на борту ракеты-носителя No12 H-IIA | |
| 2006 (Хэйсэй 18) | Декабрь | Запуск ракеты-носителя H-IIA No11 Технического испытательного спутника VIII «Кику-8» (ETS-VIII) |
| Сентябрь | Запуск спутника наблюдения Солнца «Хинодэ» (SOLAR-B) на борту ракеты-носителя No 7 М-В | |
| Запуск информационного спутника на борту ракеты-носителя No10 H-IIA | ||
| Февраль | Запуск инфракрасного астрономического спутника «АКАРИ» (ASTRO-F) на ракете-носителе No8 М-В | |
| Запуск ракеты-носителя Himawari-7 (MTSAT-2) на ракете-носителе No9 H-IIA | ||
| Январь | Запуск спутника наблюдения за Землей «DAICHI» (ALOS) на ракете-носителе No8 H-IIA | |
| 2005 г. | Декабрь | OICETS впервые в истории добилась успеха в создании спутника оптической межспутниковой связи «Кирари» с усовершенствованной технологией ретрансляции данных ЕКА «Артемида» |
| Октябрь | Успешные летные испытания малого сверхзвукового экспериментального самолета (NEXST-1) | |
| Сентябрь ~ Декабрь | Исследователь астероидов «Хаябуса» (MUSES-C) прибывает к астероиду Итокава и успешно наблюдает | |
| Август | Запуск спутника оптической межспутниковой связи «Кирари» (OICETS) и малого высокопроизводительного научного спутника «Реймей» (INDEX) на ракете «Днепр» в России | |
| Июль~Август | Астронавт Соити Ногучи участвует в миссии STS-114 на борту шаттла «Дискавери» | |
| Июль | Запуск рентгеновского астрономического спутника «Судзаку» (ASTRO-EII) на ракете-носителе No 6 М-В | |
| Февраль | JAXA объявляет о долгосрочном видении/JAXA2025 | |
| Запуск многоцелевого космического аппарата Himawari-6 (MTSAT-1R) на борту ракеты-носителя No7 H-IIA | ||
| 2004 г. | Май~Ноябрь | Успешные летные испытания с фиксированной точкой и миссии на стратосферной платформе |
| 2003 (Хэйсэй 15) | Октябрь | Институт космических и астронавтических наук, Институт аэрокосмических технологий и Национальное агентство космического развития Японии объединились в Японское агентство аэрокосмических исследований (JAXA) |
Jets
Jets - ejections of charged particles from active galactic nuclei in opposite directions perpendicular to the plane of the accretion disk around the supermassive black hole are jets. Jets are the source of radio emission of synchrotron nature.
Jupiter
Jupiter is the largest planet in the solar system and the fifth most distant from the Sun. Along with Saturn, Jupiter is considered a gas giant.
JWST
The James Webb Space Telescope stands as the most advanced infrared space observatory for the upcoming decade. Positioned well beyond the orbit of Earth’s moon, Webb is equipped with highly sensitive tools to pick up infrared light from celestial bodies within our Solar System, distant exoplanets, various stars, cosmic nebulae, and remote galaxies. These critical observations will deepen our comprehension of the universe’s nascent stages, track the evolution of galaxies and stars over epochs, and delineate features of extraterrestrial planets.
From its inception, Webb has been a product of global cooperation. The United States has teamed up with 13 other nations in constructing this monumental telescope: Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany Ireland Italy Netherlands Spain Sweden Switzerland and United Kingdom. Europe’s collective efforts are further bolstered through contributions from additional countries to the European Space Agency (ESA). As the primary partner in this venture NASA spearheads the project alongside ESA and Canadian Space Agency (CSA).
In its role as principal agency NASA holds overarching accountability for Webb’s mission. Contributions from ESA to JWST encompass several key components: including NIRSpec Mid-Infrared Instrument MIRI Optics Assembly Ariane 5 rocket which will propel telescope into space CSA’s investment in project are represented by FGS NIRISS each enhancing scope precision capabilities observatory.
more about James Webb Space Telescope
K
Kepler's laws
Kepler's laws were named after the German astronomer Johannes Kepler (1571-1630), who was known as Kepler.
The initial legal act is 1– The satellite makes a complete revolution around its center in an orbit, which is a second-order curve, in the center of which there is a central body.
The key directions of the second order, which are formed by connecting a cone with a plane that is inclined to its base at various angles, are a circle, an ellipse, a parabola and a hyperbola. The two faces of the circle have the same focus as its center. The Ellipse has two abilities that are at different levels and have the ability to be connected to each other the closer the greater its eccentricity. It is established that the central body located in any of the foci is closer to one of the poles of the ellipse - the pericenter than to the other – the apocenter.
A parabola and a hyperbola are two closed curves that relate to each other. That is why the central body can only be detected in one of the two foci, since the second one is infinitely far away. Therefore, the movement of the body along this trajectory occurs once and comes to infinity from infinity, and then leaves from there. Some of the real bodies, such as some comets that have hyperbolic near-solar trajectories, can come and go from interstellar space. As you know, a parabola is a transition curve between an ellipse and a hyperbola.
There is a 2nd law. At the moment of moving the satellite around the center, its radius vector (or the line that connects it to the central body) describes, sweeps and covers equal areas in the plane of the orbit for the same period of time.
The area of the two sectors of the orbit, which are limited by radius vectors, which deal with two segments of the orbits that the satellite passes in the same time, is equal. It indicates that the satellite has the ability to move around the orbit at different speeds in different parts of it. Its indicators are maximal in the pericenter and minimal in the apocenter.
In accordance with the 3rd law, the law is in force. The time of rotation of satellites around the center of the Earth, raised to the second degree, is proportional to the values of the large semi-axes of their orbits, raised to the third degree.
In particular, based on this formulation, it is possible to determine the large semi-axes of the orbits of bodies that revolve around the Sun. This is necessary in order to know the period of rotation of the body, the period of rotation of the Earth and the magnitude of the large semi-axis of the Earth's orbit.
I. This law was formulated by Isaac Newton in a more general form. As a result of the product, the sum of the masses of the satellite body and the central body is equal to the product of a known coefficient by the magnitude of the large semi-axis of the satellite's orbit, raised to the third power. The new values of the 2nd formulation of Kepler's 3rd law make it possible to determine the mass of cosmic bodies."
Kerr black hole
Kerr black hole - A natural black hole, having mass and number of movements per unit time, is an electrically neutral rotating black hole.
Kerr's decision
Kerr's decision - In the general theory of relativity, a solution to the equations of the gravitational field has been found, which describes an electrically neutral rotating black hole.
Kirchhoff's laws
Kirchhoff's laws were named after the German scientist Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (G.R. Kirchhoff 1824-1887).
There is Kirchhoff's first law.
At sufficiently high pressure and in the presence of gas, a solid or liquid can emit electromagnetic radiation having a continuous spectrum.
The second part of Kirchhoff's laws states:
At low pressure, a gas at rest emits electromagnetic radiation, which has a spectrum consisting of separate bright emission lines - emission lines.
The third part of Kirchhoff's law states:
With the help of a gas that has been placed between a hotter source of electromagnetic radiation having a continuous spectrum and an observer, it is possible to create lines in the radiation spectrum of the source, which are absorption lines. These lines have exactly the same direction and wavelength as the emission lines of a gas if it were on a black background that does not emit. This follows from Kirchhoff's second law.
Kirkwood hatches
The Kirkwood hatches were named after the American astronomer and mathematician Daniel Kirkwood (1814-1895).
In the asteroid belt, which is located between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, there are so-called ring zones, which are similar to the gaps between the rings of Saturn, in which the number of asteroids is significantly lower than their average number in the entire belt. They were named after the discoverer. In these zones, the periods of rotation of asteroids whose orbits are in these zones by the period of Jupiter's rotation are 1/2, 1/3, 2/5, 3/7, 5/11, etc. It is clear that the Kirkwood hatch is the result of the resonant gravitational interaction of asteroids with Jupiter, but the theory explaining this phenomenon has not yet been finalized."
Kruskal-Szekeres diagram
Kruskal-Szekeres diagram - the diagonal of the space-time axis of a Schwarzschild black hole, which describes the entire geometry of the hole.
Kuiper Belt (Edgeworth-Kuiper Belt)
Kuiper Belt (Edgeworth-Kuiper Belt) - Beyond the orbit of Neptune is an area of the Solar System populated by small objects such as asteroids and comet nuclei.
L
Lagrange points
Lagrange points - The location of points in a system of two bodies, where a third body with a negligible weight, which is not affected by any forces other than gravitational, except gravity from the first bodies, can remain stationary relative to these bodies.
Launch vehicle
Launch vehicle - In a broad sense, a launch vehicle is a multistage rocket that is designed to launch various objects and devices into outer space: spacecraft, equipment, materials, substances, etc. As a rule, it has from 2 to 5 steps.
The expediency of using launch vehicles is determined by the mass of the payload, which can be placed into low-Earth orbit of the minimum possible radius with a height of about 200 kilometers above the Earth's surface. There are four types of them: light - type Cosmos-2, Cyclone-2, Taurus, Pegasus, Conestoga, J-1, M-5 with a load capacity of 0.5-1.5 tons; medium - type Soyuz, Lightning, Zenit-2, Delta-2, Atlas with a load capacity of 3.5-7.5 tons; heavy - type Proton, Titan-4, Delta-3, Ariane-5 with a load capacity of 10-25 tons; superheavy - type Energia, Saturn-5 with a load capacity of 80-120 tons. Russia has also begun using conversion rockets for spacecraft launches, which have been decommissioned and are used to launch satellites. For example, such rockets as: "Start", "Rokot", Dnepr have a payload capacity of 1-4.2 tons. See also the Cosmodrome.
The upper stages are used after the launch vehicle puts the payload into an intermediate orbit for subsequent actions - putting the spacecraft into a working orbit or an interplanetary trajectory. In fact, these were the last stages of launch vehicles. During such maneuvers, the spacecraft's main rocket engines, which are also called marching ones, can be used.
Life
Life - one of the forms of existence of matter is life. By their characteristics, properties and functions, living objects do not differ from non-living ones. They possess: metabolism, ability to irritation, growth, development, active regulation of their functions and composition, adaptability to the environment, etc.
Light
Light - Electromagnetic radiation visible to the human eye.
Linkos
Linkos is a term that comes from Latin words: lingua - language and cosmica - cosmic.
H. Freudenthal developed a language that was created in 1960 by a Dutch mathematician and began to be used to communicate with alien civilizations that have reached a higher level of development than modern humans. With the exception of all other languages, including programming languages and other programming languages, Linkos does not involve the use of any language for its study that may be known to a trained intelligent being. There are no dictionaries or textbooks in this language. The process of studying it can be compared with the process of mastering a child's native speech, but at the same time he has a very limited number of opportunities for visual representation of subjects. In order to teach Linkos to representatives of another civilization remotely, it is necessary to transmit signals (for example, in the radio range), each of which corresponds to only one concept. Based on this, it is assumed that learning this language should begin with the simplest mathematical concepts, and then they become more complicated. If the concepts of time and space are put into effect, then it will be possible to transfer real material. The initial stage of training is characterized by the transmission of a large number of series of messages in which you can catch something in common. For example, in the case of transmitting a large number of messages like ""+++++++++ @ +++"", where the number of crosses is always different, but their number to the left of the @ sign is always greater than their number to the right, it should be understood that the value "more" means the @ sign.
Lithosphere
Lithosphere (from Greek - stone and ... sphere) is a name that means "stone, sphere."
The lithosphere is the outer, rocky outer shell of the planet, which is stronger and less ductile than what lies underneath. The Earth has a lithosphere thickness ranging from several tens to hundreds of kilometers, and the Moon - about a thousand kilometers. It is not yet known about the thickness of the lithospheres of other planets that are part of the group and the satellites of the planets. At the same time, giant planets lack them completely.
Low Earth Orbit (LEO)
Low Earth Orbit (LEO) is a space orbit around the Earth that has an altitude above the planet's surface ranging from 160 km to 2000 km. Objects at altitudes below 160 km are very strongly influenced by the atmosphere and are unstable.
Low reference orbit
Low reference orbit - The previous orbit of the spacecraft before moving to a higher orbit or before departing into deep space.
Luminosity
Luminosity - The radiation power level of a celestial body.
Lunokhod
Lunokhod - The lunar rover is based on a planetary rover, which is designed to move on the surface of the Moon. From a broader point of view, a lunar rover is a vehicle (transport platform) designed for movement on the surface of the Moon. It is also possible to remotely control the lunar rover or the driver directly on site (lunar car). Some lunar rovers can operate independently without the help of an operator, and they can also be self-propelled robots.
M
Magnetars
Magnetar stars are neutron stars with a powerful magnetic field. Its strength near magnetars is many trillions (1013-1015) gauss, which is thousands of times greater than that of ordinary neutron stars, and this value is almost a thousand times greater than that of the Earth's magnetic field. However, the magnetic field strength of the planet is no more than 0.6 gauss. Sometimes the rotation axes and magnetic fields of magnetars do not coincide. Until the end, the nature and origin of such powerful magnetic fields of magnetars is not clear.
Magnetic storm
A magnetic storm is a process in which there is a perturbation of the magnetic sphere of a planet or other cosmic body caused by the action of the solar wind. A severe magnetic storm can last up to several days. Magnetic storms can have different intensities depending on the speed and energy of the solar wind particles, as well as the magnetic field flux density.The influence extends to: any electrical conducting systems, such as power lines and metal pipes, mechanisms and units used in artificial Earth satellites, conditions for the passage of radio waves (navigation and radio communication are hampered).
Magnetopause
Magnetopause - At the boundary of the magnetosphere of a celestial body there is a magnetopause, where the field pressure is equal to the pressure of the plasma surrounding the magnetic sphere.
Magnetospheres
Magnetospheres - The area near cosmic bodies and having global magnetic fields there is called the magnetosphere.
Within the solar system.
Huge areas of outer space around large planets where solar wind and cosmic rays interact with their magnetic fields (see Magnetic Field). A display located in the magnetosphere is a dipole that "wraps" charged solar wind particles along lines of force toward the planet's magnetic poles. The inner part, which is "blown" by the solar wind from the day side to the night side, is the planet's magnetic plume. Scientific studies have shown the presence of magnetospheres on all the large planets in the solar system except Venus and Mars (see Mars, magnetic field), Pluto, and some of the planets' satellites.
Main sequence
Main sequence - one o the main condensations in the Hertzsprung-Ressel diagram, which is the main sequence. It is dominated by the stars that are represented in the diagram. It has the appearance of a narrow strip that encompasses most of the stars represented on it.
The main order moves diagonally across the Hertzsprung-Ressel diagram from the upper left corner, where stars with large luminosities and early spectral classes - "O", "B" - are displayed - to the lower right corner to stars with low luminosities or late spectral classes - "K", "M". The fundamental factor in determining the position of a star on the main sequence is its mass and, to a lesser extent, its age.
Main sequence star
Main sequence star - The same star that appears in the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram with a dot in the middle of the main sequence.
Major semi-axis
The major semi-axis is half of the largest diameter of the ellipse.
Mars (planet)
Mars is the fourth farthest from the Sun and the seventh largest planet in the Solar System. The mass of the planet is 10.7% of the mass of the Earth. It is named in honor of Mars, the ancient Roman god of war, who was similar in spirit to the ancient Greek Ares.
Mars rover
Mars rover - A rover is moving on the surface of Mars. The soft landing of the rovers is carried out with the help of the descent vehicles.
Unlike the rover, the rover does not have the ability to remotely control the commands of an operator who is on Earth in real time due to the fact that the signals from the rover and the command signals from the rover have significant differences in speed. The delay time, depending on the relative position of Earth and Mars, ranges from 3 minutes 6 seconds to 22 minutes 17 seconds. A delay occurs when a radio signal, due to its limited propagation, takes some time to reach Mars and then reach Earth. Rovers can function for some time, including moving and performing research, independently according to pre-designed programs, receiving commands only for a while.
Mascons
Mascons - From the English mass concentration - mass concentration.
Mascons are also called objects located in the lithosphere of the Moon, near its surface, which can cause gravitational fluctuations. As a result of their detection, they were localized due to perturbations in the motion of the Moon's artificial satellites. Beneath the lunar seas, which have a rounded shape are most often located mascons.
There is an opinion that their origin is connected with the impacts of huge cosmic bodies, which in turn caused in the lunar crust huge, reaching several kilometers, depressions. This was followed by geologic processes. At the bottom, the denser and hotter mantle, which was melted more than the crust, pushed up the bottom of the geologic depression formed by the impact - a depression, forming a lens under it - a bulge consisting of the substance of the mantle that had risen. Part of the mantle substance on the surface rose to the surface in the form of lava and filled the rest of the depression. On this basis, some areas of the lunar crust were found to be more dense than others.
There is a possibility that mascons are present on Mars and Mercury.
Matter
Matter - Everything that exists can be called matter.
It includes:
That which can be reliably understood using the five basic human senses.
That which is repeatedly registered through the use of physical devices. In the second and third cases, the category would be recognized as being registered as a result of experience.
The list includes all categories whose necessity for existence is supported by theoretical justifications that have been repeatedly confirmed by practice.
According to current thinking, matter appears to us either as matter or energy, which are unified by the well-known relation formulated by A. Einstein (see Relativity Theory, Special).
There is a possibility that matter in the process of its development passes the stage when mind should arise in the Universe.
Mercury (planet)
Mercury is the smallest planet in the solar system and the closest to the Sun. It is generally believed that the name was given in honor of Mercury, the ancient Roman god of commerce. It was nicknamed fast because of the fact that it moves across the sky faster than other planets. Its average orbital time around the Sun is only 87.97 Earth days, which is the shortest period of all the planets in the solar system.
Meridian Circle
Meridian circle, or meridianus - noon, is one of the terms for the circle at noon.
In astronomy, an astrometric instrument called a ''meridian circle'' is an optical telescope that rotates about its axis in the plane of the celestial meridian. This instrument was created to accurately track the moments of luminaries passing through the celestial meridian.
Metagalaxy
Metagalaxy - Often, in recent times, the term Metagalaxy is hardly ever used. In the past, this was the name given to the visible part of the Universe.
Metallicity
Metallicity is the relative concentration of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium in stars or other astronomical objects, which characterizes them as metals. It affects the possibility of the formation of planets in such a body - for example, the lack of a sufficient degree of metallicity does not allow the formation of planets with rocky surfaces.
Meteor
A meteor is a flash or glowing trail that remains after the destruction of a small meteorite that fell to Earth and left behind polluted air.
Meteor Shower
Meteor shower is the process of the appearance of meteors at the moment of contact of the Earth with a large part of the meteor swarm, while an intense manifestation of the meteor shower is observed. The meteor shower period is characterized by a large number of meteorites that are recorded within one hour. Their number can reach several thousand. Thus, the Draconis meteor shower in 1833 and 1946 caused meteor showers with an intensity of 12,000 and 30,000 meteorological units in one hour.
patrol
According to Wikipedia, a meteor patrol is a device that is designed to detect and register meteors. A photograph or video camera with a wide-angle lens aimed at the zenith is the main part of the meteor patrol. It must be equipped with a device that periodically closes the lens - an obturator, which most often is a propeller with flat blades rotating around its axis. As a result of the work of the meteor patrol, it is possible to obtain long-term exposures of the night sky. At the same time, in images and photo effects, stars are obtained in the form of arcs due to the daily (see Day) rotation of the Earth. If a meteor appears in the camera's field of view during the exposure, its image can be represented as a straight, interrupted line, since the rays of the obturator pass in front of the lens. The range of the segments of this line, depending on the speed of rotation of the obturator, allows you to calculate the speed of the meteor.
flow
A natural meteorological stream is a collection of a large number of meteors with a common radiant (more information about this can be found here). It can be observed when a meteorite swarm comes into contact with the Earth. The conventional names of meteor showers are formed from the Latin or Russian name of the constellation in which the radiant is located. The intensity of meteorological observations is characterized by their hourly number - the number of meteors that are observed during an hour. There are a huge number of meteor showers that manifest themselves at all times of the year, but only a few of them have maximum power, reaching up to several dozen. There are four quadrantids: January 3, Lyrids (April 21), Aquarids (May 5), Perseids (August 12), Orionids (October 21), Leonids (November 17), Gemenids (December 12) and Ursids (December 22).
It is worth noting that there are meteor showers with radiants that are in the daytime sky at the time of their peak activity. Since meteors related to them can only be observed during the morning or evening twilight and recorded using radars, their visual observation is possible only during this period. Streams with radiants in the constellation of Aries (June 7) and Perseus (June 13), having hourly values at a maximum of 60 and 40, can be attributed to meteor showers.
radiant
A point located on a celestial sphere, from which, according to the observer, meteors of the same meteor shower seem to fly out (see here). In fact, meteoroids make a complete revolution around the Earth and fall on all hemispheres along parallel trajectories. We owe this to the similarity of their visible tracks to a single point, a perspective effect familiar to everyone who has watched the railway tracks converge and diverge towards the horizon.
Meteor swarm
Meteor swarm (meteor stream).
Meteoroids and dust, which are the remains of a cometary nucleus destroyed after several successive returns to the Sun, form this swarm. It revolves around the Sun in an orbit that is the site of the comet's death. It then gradually disperses throughout the orbit, covering a significant portion of it. Nevertheless, in that place of the orbit, where the nucleus of the comet was located, for a long time remains the process of thickening the swarm, which when it meets the Earth causes the phenomenon of meteor shower"."
Meteorite
A meteorite. (from the Greek meteorites - meteorite).
Arizona
He formed more than a thousand years ago the most famous meteorite crater in the Arizona Desert, which is the largest in the world. The average diameter of the crater is 1207 m and the depth is 174 m, while its average shaft height is 37 m. Inside the crater there is an accumulation of sandstone with an admixture of iron and nickel, which is pulverized. Perhaps the main part of the meteorite is located at a depth of four hundred meters.
Goba
In 1920, the largest of all meteorites was discovered in South-West Africa. It is a meteorite made of iron, which has a mass of 70 tons and is located in a funnel formed by it. Nothing is known about the exact date of his fall.
Sikhote-Alinsky
An iron meteorite that fell in the Far East on February 12, 1947 in the Sikhote-Alin range and was named after him was discovered and investigated. During braking in the atmosphere, the meteorite exploded and shattered into fragments, which fell on an area of 35 square kilometers. In total, the mass of the meteorite is 60 tons, but at the moment only 28 tons of its fragments have been collected. During the entire time of meteorite research, small impurities of gold and platinum were discovered for the first time.
Tunguska
The body that exploded on June 30, 1908 in the Earth's atmosphere over the East Siberian taiga was named the Tunguska meteorite. Due to this explosion, the taiga ignited within a radius of 30 kilometers from its epicenter. A shock wave passed around the globe twice. The fire in the taiga lasted for more than two years. All seismic stations in the world have noted the earthquake that caused the explosion. Despite this, there is currently no reliable description of the mechanism of the event and no body substance has been found. To explain this phenomenon, it can be hypothesized that as a result of strong heating during braking in the Earth's atmosphere, a small icy comet core appeared over Siberia at that time.
Meteorites
Meteorites - It is a celestial body that has reached the surface of the Earth or another large celestial body. Many meteorites found have masses ranging from a few grams to several tens of tons. It is said that about 5,000 to 6,000 tons of meteorites fall to Earth per day, or about 2,000 tons annually.
Meteoroids
Meteoroids - These bodies are meteorites or meteors. The composition of small space bodies includes: fragments of asteroids, fragments of cometary nuclei and even fragmented parts of rocks on the surface of planets and their satellites. If you enter the atmosphere of a planet at a speed exceeding the speed of a bullet, then when meteorites burn in it, they create light phenomena called meteors. The interplanetary environment and meteorites are also included in this list.
Michelson interferometer
Michelson interferometer - An instrument that was invented by Albert A. Michelson and was originally intended to observe the movement of the Earth relative to the world's ether.
Micron
Micron (from the Greek mikros - small) is an abbreviation of the word "micron.
The length is equal to one thousandth of the metro. It is used to measure the wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation in the visible and infrared regions of the spectrum, as well as in infrared rays.
Monochromator
Monochromator (from Greek monos - the only one, from Greek chroma - color).
A monochromator is a device that is capable of isolating a beam with a short wavelength interval from the electromagnetic radiation stream, which enters its optical device. In this device, the main elements dispersing and decomposing radiation into the spectrum are a prism or a diffraction grating. One of the integral parts of the monochromator is two narrow slits. Most often, they are no more than a millimeter wide and 1-2 centimeters long. The entrance slit cuts off a flat beam of incoming radiation that hits the dispersing element. A narrow section of the resulting spectrum, oriented parallel to the entrance slit, falls out. The narrower the spectral range of wavelengths the outgoing radiation beam has, the smaller the distance between the inlet and outlet openings.
Moon
The location of the Moon.
To date, it is the only known artificial satellite of the Earth. It is possible that due to the rapid development of the observational technical base, other, but much smaller, natural satellites of the Earth, which can be classified as asteroids, will soon be discovered.
The Nature of the Moon:
According to the Albedo data.
The albedo of the visible side of the moon is 0.073. In areas dominated by lunar seas (see here), it is smaller, and continents (see here) are larger, but in general, the surface of the Moon (see this page) reflects a little more than seven percent of the light, and it is difficult to imagine that the silvery disk of the Moon is actually almost black. At the same time, such an apparent contradiction can be resolved if we take into account the fact that the Moon is a reflection of a powerful stream of solar radiation and even 0.073 of its share is quite large.
The state of the atmosphere.
The Moon has no general atmosphere. On the sunlit side of the Moon, near its surface (see here), a faint layer of gas was detected. Ten million times more rarefied than the Earth's atmosphere. This gas contains atoms that were introduced into the regolith by the solar wind and were named: H, Ne, O, Ne, Ar, as well as those released from the lunar surface during meteorite impacts affecting the Earth's surface and during the bombardment of the regolith by cosmic rays. At night, the gas concentration decreases by another ten thousand times, which is due to the freezing of most of the gas in the regolith.
The inner side.
The Moon's relation to the Earth is always the same: it always looks at the Earth with the same hemisphere, which is called its visible side. The reason for this is that the periods of the Moon's revolution around the Earth and rotation around its own axis completely coincide. Read more about the reverse side here.
Wine bowls, or craters (from the Greek. krathraV - krateras - wine bowl).
Popular terms for craters are ring mountains or ramparts with a small slide that is located in the center. At the moment, they have a diameter from a few centimeters to 235 kilometers, which has the Grimaldi crater. The length and height of the ring mountains of large craters ranges between 300 and 7000 meters. However, the ratio of the diameters of many craters and the height of their ring shafts is such that an observer located in the center of the crater will not be able to see the surrounding hills, since they are hidden behind the lunar horizon.
Small craters were formed as a result of bombardment by meteoroids, while large ones were formed as a result of bombardment by larger bodies: asteroids or cometary nuclei. Subsequent volcanic processes and the formation of large craters occurred under the influence of the impact of larger bodies.
The old craters, which were relatively young, underwent less destruction and retained their original shape better. Some of them have the opportunity to observe the rays of light that are clearly visible during the full moon, which radiate radially from them.
There are more than three hundred thousand craters on the surface of the moon, measuring more than a kilometer.
A straight slope (from Latin libratio - swing).
Libration is a small fluctuation that occurs when the Moon moves in orbit. They have geometric and dynamic reasons. These geographical reasons are related to the fact that due to the ellipticity of its orbit (see Orbit, elliptical), the Moon, according to Kepler's second law, rotates around the Earth at different speeds in different parts of it. Due to the constant speed of rotation of the Moon around its axis, an observer on Earth has the opportunity to observe from the east, then from the west, part of what is inaccessible to an earthly observer in other conditions. Due to the fact that the axis of the Moon's daily rotation is inclined to the plane of its orbit (see Day), it became possible to “inspect” its opposite hemisphere from different sides, including from the north and south. Fluctuations caused by dynamic causes can also be observed on the Moon. This makes it possible to observe 0.6 of the Moon's surface from Earth, rather than 0.5, as it would be in the absence of libration.
From English, mass concentration is the concentration of mass.
Formations present in the Moon's lithosphere near its surface that cause gravitational (see physical, gravitational field) anomalies are called mascons. As a result of the discovery, they were localized due to disturbances in the motion of artificial satellites of the Moon. Basically, the mascons are located under the lunar seas (see here), which have a rounded shape.
It is believed that their origin is connected with the impacts of huge cosmic bodies, which in turn caused huge depressions in the lunar crust, reaching several kilometers. Following this, geological processes began. At the bottom, a denser and hotter mantle, which was melted more than the crust, pushed up the bottom of the geological depression formed by the impact, forming a bulge lens under it, consisting of the substance of the raised mantle. Part of the mantle substance on the surface rose to the surface in the form of lava and filled the rest of the depression. Based on this, in some areas of the lunar crust, places were found where its density was higher than in other places.
There is a possibility that mascons are present on Mars and Mercury.
Equipment.
Continents are those areas of the Moon's surface that have a light shade. They are about 4.5 billion years old. They are surrounded by craters and mountain systems, the height of which is 7-8 kilometers. These lands were formed by ancient lunar rocks that do not contain traces of rock eruption, so they have preserved all traces of the effects of cosmic factors: meteoroids, dust, solar wind and cosmic rays.
Sea shores.
The seashores are flat and dark areas of the surface that do not have large craters. At the same time, due to the existing conditions on the Moon and their physical characteristics, they cannot contain a drop of liquid water. These places were formed by molten rocks that once flowed out of the bowels of the Moon - basalts that hid previously formed craters. The age of the seas is no more than 3.5 billion years. The surface of this basalt layer in different places can range from several tens of meters to several kilometers. Sometimes craters are not completely hidden by lava. Sometimes the craters located under its layer manifest themselves during the subsidence of the young basalts covering them, with the help of their characteristic grinding, which is a repetition of the shape of buried geological structures. Such phenomena are called relict craters.
Seas occupy about 1/3 of the surface area, which is located on the visible side of the Moon, and on the reverse side (see here) their share is only a few percent. The main reason for this is that the center of mass of the Moon is shifted relative to its geometric center and is located in the direction of the side that always faces the Earth. There were times when the speed of rotation of the Moon around its axis was greater, but over time it decreased, and the periods of its rotation around the axis and rotation around the Earth became the same. In this case, the asymmetric location of the Moon's center of mass played a big role. However, the side of the Moon visible from Earth is currently being subjected to the strongest tidal influences (see Tides). This is due to the fact that it was here that molten basalts most often broke through to the surface.
There is a downside to the coin.
This hemisphere of the Moon, invisible from Earth, is called its reverse side. This circumstance is due to the fact that the periods of the Moon's revolution around the Earth and rotation around its own axis coincide. The reason for this is that one of the hemispheres of the Moon is always turned towards the Earth. This also applies to the - visible side - here.
A fragment of the surface.
The thin but very rocky surface of the moon is dotted with numerous craters and covered with a layer of regolith (see this here). The thickness of the lunar regolith is 4-5 m in the zones of the lunar seas and 10-20 m on the continents. There are various nuances and differences on different parts of the surface, but there is no effect of water or wind. In the upper part of the surface there are atoms and molecules that are part of the solar wind and gases that are formed as a result of exposure to meteoroids and bombardment by cosmic rays. In recent years, a large amount of water ice has been discovered in the territory, which is located in the polar regions, where the temperature never exceeds minus 2200 C. This was due to the fact that the Sun never rises high above the local horizon here. It is estimated at several billion tons.
General information about the origin.
To date, there are four main hypotheses about the origin of the Moon.
The moon, according to the hypothesis of "rejection", came out of the Earth's mantle. According to the hypothesis of “joint origin”, the simultaneous formation of the Moon and Earth from protoplanetary matter as a double planet is possible. It is believed that the Moon appeared elsewhere in the Solar system and was captured by the Earth. And finally, the origin of the Moon is associated with the possibility of combining a ring of protoplanetary matter rotating around the Earth into one whole.
At the moment, the most popular hypothesis is one that combines some of the ideas from the assumptions already considered. It says that at the beginning of the Earth's existence, there was a collision with a cosmic body with a mass no less than that of Mars. At this moment, in the molten body of the planet Earth, basically, there has already been a division into heavy and light fractions. For this reason, all fractions that contain iron and its accompanying elements: gold, platinum and others have sunk into the depths. As a result of the collision, among other things, a huge amount of light fraction matter was released into near-Earth space.
Multiple star
A multiple star is a group of three or more stars that are close together and is called a "multiple".
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Naked singularity
Naked singularity - the conditions for the existence of such a phenomenon as a space-time singularity do not imply the existence of an event horizon.
Negative space
Negative space - A region of space located on the other side of the ring singularity of a black hole in a Kerr black hole.
Neutrinos
Neutrinos are the lightest (possibly scale–free) elementary particle of matter, which can only take part in weak and gravitational interactions.
Neutron
A neutron is an uncharged particle that is very close to a proton in its properties. More than half of the particles that make up most atomic nuclei are neutrons.
Neutron Star
Neutron star consist mainly of neutrons. This is due to their high density.
Night Sky Illumination (Light Pollution)
Night Sky Illumination (Light Pollution) - Increasingly, astronomical observations are hampered by light from artificial light sources superimposed on the night sky. Over the past hundred years, astronomical observatories that were built in or near cities have lost importance due to the development of the use of electricity to illuminate populated areas.
In areas that are economically developed, at night artificial light sources illuminating the atmosphere create the effect of "light pollution", which in English means "light pollution".
This phenomenon not only interferes with telescope observations in these regions, but also affects all of humanity. At the moment, a noticeable part of the world's population lives in complete darkness of the starry sky, created by artificial illumination of the Earth's atmosphere. There is a tendency that the regions where there is a strong "light pollution" are constantly expanding and more and more people end their life without seeing the starry sky.
Conditions are worsening with space objects and electromagnetic radiation being observed from Earth. There is a tendency to increase the frequency ranges, powers and number of different radiating radio devices that can interfere in the radio bands that astronomers are interested in.
O
Of universal gravitation (Newton's law)
Of universal gravitation (Newton's law) - there is one law in the world called the Law of Universal Gravitation (after the English mathematician, astronomer and physicist Isaac Newton - I. Newton 1643-1727).
This law is the most important law for understanding how the universe works. Both things that are material bodies are attracted to each other with a force that is directly proportional to their mass and inversely proportional to the value of the distance between them, raised to the second degree.
Olbers' paradox
Olbers' paradox - This paradox was named after the German astronomer Henry Olbers (1758-1840), who was a famous German scientist.
According to the Olbers paradox, if the universe is boundless and eternal, then in any direction on the plane of view of an observer from the Earth there must be a star surface. This means that the entire sky should be brightly lit, and its brightness should be comparable to the brightness of the Sun. At the same time, the phenomenon of the dark night sky remains unexplained.
Based on the solution of the paradox, a cosmological theory of the Big Bang can be found. She has two circumstances that contribute to this.
Since the beginning of the Big Bang, light has not yet managed to penetrate the universe.
At certain temperatures on the surface of stars, they emit maximum energy in the optical range of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum. The dynamic expansion of the universe, which began after the Big Bang, leads to a red shift in the spectral lines of stars. This action leads to the transformation of the brightest part of their visible spectra into the infrared part of it, which is not visible to the eye.
It is likely that the universe has a closed character, i.e. it is not unlimited and the number of stars in each direction is limited.
Oorta cloud
Oorta cloud - Thanks to the name of Dutch astronomer Jan Hendrik Oort, the cloud was named. From 1900 to 1992 he worked at the Oort company.
It covers the inner part of the Solar System, located on its "outskirts", and is called the Oort cloud. The total length of its outer boundary ranges from 40,000 to 150,000 astronomical units. A large number of ice blocks are located in the Oort cloud. The filler in them consists of water ice and frozen gases, primarily carbon dioxide. They were embedded with dust particles and larger solid fragments that contain compounds of silicates, metals and carbon. It is believed that the substances of these blocks were not used in the formation of large bodies of the Solar system.
In such proximity to the Sun, it looks like an ordinary bright star, and its orbital velocity around it is only a fraction of a meter per second. Sometimes, as a result of gravitational interactions or collisions, some of the bodies that make up the cloud may decrease their speed. The consequence of this is the beginning of their fall into the central space of the Solar System, where they turn into comets."
Optical dual system
Optical dual system - The interaction of two stars with the possibility of observation.
Orbits
Orbits - Somatoform anomaly. The degree of the angle between the segment that connects the central body to the satellite and the major axis of the orbit. An anomaly is counted in the direction of movement of the satellite.
Enlarged half-axis
This is about half of the largest length - the widest axis of the elliptical orbit.
An ascending node is an ascending node
The point at which the satellite's orbit connects to the selected plane in its central body. Being in it, the body moves to the northern hemisphere. In addition, you can see the inclination here.
The apse line
This line connects the pericenter and apocenter of the orbit. This is consistent with the semi-major axis (see here) of the elliptical orbit.
Designation of nodes
The line that connects the ascending node and the descending node (see here) in orbit.
A small semi-axis
This part is about half the length of the shortest axis of the elliptical orbit.
Addition and inclination
The degree of the angle between the plane of the satellite's orbit and the selected plane in its central body. This angle is located between the angle between the plane of the ecliptic and the orbit of the planet, as well as between the plane of the orbit of its satellite and the plane of the planetary equator.
A thin and non-crossing knot
The point at which the satellite's orbit connects to the selected plane in its central body. It moves the body to the southern hemisphere. In addition, you can see the inclination here.
At the moment, the appeal period is passing.
The average time it takes for a satellite in orbit to complete a complete revolution around its center.
Eccentricity or centrality
If we consider a special case, then with values of eccentricity greater than zero and less than one, the eccentricity is a measure of the elongation of the ellipse. How is it defined? It is defined as the result of dividing the distance from the center of the ellipse to its point of focus by the length of the greater half-axis of the ellipse.
Also, the eccentricity can take values that range from zero to infinity. At zero eccentricity, ellipses have a weak elongation and are close to a circle. The distance between the center and the focus at zero eccentricity is zero, which means that they coincide and the ellipse turns into a circle. When the eccentricities are close to one, the ellipses have a strongly elongated shape, and when the eccentricity increases to one, the shape of the ellipse becomes hyperbola."
Outer planets
Outer planets - Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are outer planets. Their orbit includes the Earth's orbit, which means that these planets are always farther from the Sun than our planet.
Outer space
Outer space - the volume of space that is outside the Earth's atmosphere is called outer space. Cosmic bodies such as galaxies, the starry sky, nebulae, planets, etc. move in it. Outer space is permeated with streams of cosmic rays and electromagnetic radiation. It contains fields that influence physical processes.
According to the generally accepted opinion, the boundary between the Earth's atmosphere and outer space is located at an altitude of 100 kilometers above the surface of the geoid. This provision is enshrined in an international legal act, and also has physical grounds, since this is the minimum possible perigee height for a satellite in Earth orbit.
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Paleocontacts
Paleocontacts (from Greek palaios - ancient). Human contacts with extraterrestrial civilizations or devices that may have existed on Earth in prehistoric times have been called paleocontacts. At the moment, no evidence has been found that they were."
Panspermia
Panspermia comes from the Greek word panos, which means everything and sperm is a seed.
This hypothetical cause of life on Earth is called panspermia. It is believed that it is the cause of the "spores of life" - the simplest microorganisms that are in a "closed" state. Meteoroids and comet nuclei can act as "carriers" of spores, which are undoubtedly present not only in the Solar System, but also move in interstellar space from star to star. If the "spores of life" from outer space hit the Earth, they could lead to the development of the entire biosphere of the planet. However, this hypothesis does not yet have convincing evidence.
Technogenic panspermia requires the closest attention to itself.
This possibility takes place in two aspects: it is the possibility of "infection" by microorganisms of the atmosphere and surface of other planets of the Solar System from Earth, as well as Mars, where there are conditions for the existence of terrestrial life, when landing spacecraft on these bodies. There is also a danger that the simplest life existing there may die under the influence of our planet. And the fact is that, once on Earth, microorganisms can create completely unexpected and sometimes dangerous forms of living organisms in a relatively short period of time. In order to avoid such situations, all spacecraft that will be sent to space bodies whose conditions at least remotely resemble those on Earth are sterilized - chemical and radiation destruction of terrestrial microorganisms.
Thirdly, there is a risk to the Earth's biosphere in the case of the delivery of soil samples from other space bodies. Despite the fact that biological life on the Moon is excluded by all indications, the most serious precautions were taken during the study of soil from the Moon to avoid direct contact of its samples with objects of terrestrial nature. These samples are still in sealed vessels, despite the fact that their absence of any life has been absolutely confirmed.
Parallax
Parallax (from the Greek parallaxis - parallax) is a phenomenon in which there is a violation of symmetry.
The transverse displacement of an object when observing it from two points that are outside the straight line that connects the observer and the object is called parallax. The distance to an object can be determined by measuring the angles between the directions to it and the lines that connect them. Also, using the length of the segment between the measurement points, called the base, you can calculate the distance to the object.
According to the data presented in astronomy, the phenomena of parallax of objects of the Solar system and some stars occur due to the daily (see Day) rotation of the Earth and annual (see Year) movement around the Sun. You can also use methods for determining distances to space objects using Parallax.
The annual parallax of a star is the angle at which the average radius of the Earth's orbit can be observed, perpendicular to the direction of the star.
Parallax of the star
Parallax of the star - The dynamic shift of a relatively close star observed when the Earth moves around the Sun (by observing from different sides of the diameter of the Earth's orbit).
Parsecs
Parsecs - The approximate length is 3.26 light years. The parallax of a star that is within 1 pc of Earth would correspond to one.
Passage tool
Passage tool - This tool is used to make a pass. A popular astrological tool that is used to determine the exact time of the passage of stars through the celestial meridian. This makes it possible to measure changes in the speed of rotation of the Earth and to clarify the ascent of the heavenly bodies. In it you can see a telescope that is attached to a horizontal mount.
Penrose diagram
Penrose diagram - it depicts a conformal map covering all space and time.
Perihelion
Perihelion - The point closest to the Sun is the orbit of a body in motion around the Sun (when rotating around the Earth, a similar point is called perigee).
Perovskite
Perovskite - One of the rarest minerals on the Earth's surface is perovskite or calcium titanate. It is customary to use the following formula: catio₃. It is named after the Russian mineralogist L. A. Perovsky.
Person
Person - Man, as an intelligent being, appeared about a million years ago on planet Earth. The explanation seems more likely, according to which the process of its appearance was due to natural selection among other organisms.
The process of finding the "missing transitional stage" between man and ape, which anthropologists talk about, seems much less complicated than accepting the hypothesis of the appearance of "intelligent man" as a result of the influence of aliens. This can be confirmed at least by the fact that the genetic code and molecular composition of the proteins of the human body are absolutely identical to those that are characteristic of the proteins that make up other organisms living on the planet.
The popular opinion that man is "the "highest stage of the development of matter"" has no basis. Following it, most likely, within the framework of the civilization already established on Earth, the emergence of intelligent life will naturally follow, which will develop along the next evolutionary steps.
There is one direction of evolution that will not necessarily be realized in the future, but it can already manifest itself. Now it is almost not surprising that artificial teeth and limbs are an integral part of the human body. Currently, new technologies are being developed that can make it possible to create substitutes for other important human organs. This process shows us the direction of further development, as a result of which a person is first connected to a machine, and then the biological carrier of the human mind is replaced by its human-created electronic-mechanical equivalent.
It is possible that there will be other options. So, for example, if you clone living beings, and in particular humans, then this may affect their evolution in a different way.
There is no doubt that the influence of civilization as a natural factor on man and his biological species, as well as his natural development, is a fact.
Perturbation
Perturbation is a minor deviation from the norm that can be caused by external factors. It is mainly applied to orbital distortions that arise due to the effects of gravity of other bodies.
Perturbation (Gravity maneuver)
Perturbation (Gravity maneuver) - The word "perturbation" comes from the Latin perturbatio - disorder, abrupt change. This is a type of gravitational maneuver.
Due to perturbation, a spacecraft can increase or decrease its speed when passing near a massive cosmic body - a planet or its natural satellite.
If a spacecraft catches up with a large-mass space body orbiting the Earth, it increases the speed of its movement. The attraction of the cosmic body contributes to this. It seems to "pull" the spacecraft towards itself, while it retains speed after braking in the gravitational field of the body after overtaking. In this regard, the speed of the spacecraft increases.
In the case when a spacecraft crosses an orbit around a large space body, it accelerates under the influence of gravity for a shorter time than it slows down after passing through its gravitational field. Therefore, the speed of the spacecraft is decreasing.
Photon
Photon - It is a quantum that emits light.
Photon orbit
Photon orbit - The rays of light travel in a circular orbit around the Schwarzschild black hole.
Photosphere
Photosphere - Photometric observations have shown that there is an opaque lower layer on the Sun, which we see in an optical telescope and perceive as the surface of the Sun. The photosphere has a thickness of 200-300 km, while the temperature in it decreases with a height of 8-10 thousand. Up to 4,300 K, which is the minimum temperature and low degree of ionization of the gas. Unlike other layers of the Sun, the photosphere has the lowest temperature and low ionization level.
Planetary configuration
Planetary configuration - The configuration of the planets is a special case when the planets are in harmony with each other, as well as with the Sun and the Earth.
The upper connection.
The configuration will be implemented at the moment when the Sun will be between the Earth and the planet (internal or external). The transverse planes of the orbits of all the planets are perpendicular to the plane of the Earth's orbit. Thus, depending on how the planet is located in orbit, it can pass above or below the Sun at the upper junction, as well as go beyond it.
The bottom connection.
At the moment when the inner planet is between the Earth and the Sun, the configuration process takes place. According to the reasons discussed in the article "upper connection" (see here), a planet can pass through the disk of the Sun, and at the lower connection – below or above it.
Square (from Latin. qudratura - to make a quadrangular) is a shape that allows you to make a quadrangular space.
When the configuration is implemented, the angle between the directions to the Sun and the outer planet becomes 900 for an earthly observer.
Mutual confrontation.
At the moment when the Earth is on the line between the outer planet and the Sun, the configuration is realized. At the same time, the planet is located at a minimum distance from Earth. Due to the fact that the orbit of the Earth and the planets has an elliptical shape, the distances between the Earth and any outer planet from collision to confrontation can be changed. In the case when the confrontation occurs after a certain number of revolutions of the Earth around the Sun, at which the distance between them is minimal, it is called the "great confrontation".
Demonstration, or elongation (from Latin. elongatio - delete).
This configuration occurs when an observer from space sees the Sun and the inner planet at the maximum angular distance from each other.
Planetary Nebula
Planetary Nebula - A light nebula is located around the old star, which was formed from the upper layers of its atmosphere. This is usually a shell that was dropped by a giant star.
Planetary rings
Planetary rings - Each planet has its own rings. They take the form of wide and flat stripes that surround all the giant planets. They consist of rock and ice fragments of various shapes and sizes: from microscopic dust particles to large fragments that revolve around the planets in their orbits, located in a straight line with the surface of the Earth. The rings are based on material from either destroyed or unformed satellites of planets.
Planetesimal
Planetesimal - The formation that appears at the final stage of the formation of planets from gas-dust matter, which is the precursor of planetary gas and dust. The planet is an embryonic stage, a protoplanet.
Planetoid
Planetoid - A planetary rover is a mobile device that can move on the surface of another planet, satellite, or dwarf planet. Some planetary rovers are being developed as vehicles for moving space station crew members, while others act as research vehicles - unmanned, remotely controlled devices designed to study the surface. Special landing modules are used to carry out delivery to the surface of the studied celestial body. They can be either independent or separable spacecraft.
Planets
Planets - It is derived from the Greek word "planodnos" - wandering, wandering.
According to the ancient definition given in ancient times, these are "wandering luminaries" that move against the background of fixed stars. Planets are cold, i.e. they do not emit light in the visible spectrum of electromagnetic radiation, but are light-reflecting cosmic bodies with a large mass that make a complete revolution around the Sun or other stars. To date, there are 9 large planets in the Solar System, located in order from the Sun: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto and many asteroids - small planets. The rules for determining the minimum sizes of cosmic bodies in which they are not yet meteoroids and are considered small planets have not been defined. See also the articles on the names of planets and the article Asteroids.
Planets observed without using a telescope (Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, along with the Sun and Moon) - seven luminaries moving across the sky - have always attracted people's attention. It was their number that influenced the fact that the week consists of seven days. Not only in the languages of the peoples of the world, the names of some days of the week have their lexical roots, but also in Russian, some of these days have the same names.
For more information about the planetary systems of other stars, see the article Stellar satellites, invisible.
Many people know that giants have
These planets are located in the Solar System in order from the Sun: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. They are very similar to each other in size and mass, which are much larger than any planet in the group (see here). They make up 99.6% of the mass of all the planets in the Solar system. Giant planets have relatively close orbits to the Sun, but their chemical composition is more similar to the solar one than that of the terrestrial planets, which are further from our main star. Planets larger than Earth are surrounded by many moons and rings (see Rings of planets), which consist of small solids. Unlike the terrestrial type, giant planets have a significantly lower density compared to the planet of the terrestrial group. Their structures differ from those of the terrestrial planets in that their internal structures have significant differences. See also what is the starry sky and the satellites that are not visible.
A society from another planet
In the Solar System, these are Mercury, Venus and Earth, which are located in order from the Sun. They are distinguished from the giant planets by the fact that they have similarities in size, mass, structure and position in the Solar system. In addition, they are characterized by a relatively high density. The planet Pluto has some differences from the terrestrial planets, but for historical reasons it is not yet one of them. At the same time, like other planets of the Earth group, it was discovered in 1930, and explored only in the 90s of the XX century.
Plasma
Plasma - From the Greek. plasma - means creation.
The fourth aggregate state of any substance is plasma, including solid, liquid or gaseous. It is a gas with a high degree of ionization, in which the proportion of ionized atoms ranges from 0.1% to 100%, and its electric charge is neutral. The main factors contributing to the ionization of a gas are the effects of electromagnetic radiation and high-energy cosmic rays on it, as well as its high temperature.
For these reasons, the properties of plasma and non-ionized gas differ. The gas review fully describes the classical gas laws of physics. They are based on taking into account simple mechanical collisions of neutral atoms or molecules with each other or with surfaces of solids. In the case of plasma, the main role is played by the effects of electrical mutual influence between charged particles at a distance, as well as their interaction with external and generated electric and magnetic fields during the movement of plasma flows (see physical, electromagnetic fields).
Plasma capabilities largely depend on its concentration, temperature, and degree of ionization. To a significant extent, the intensity of the "frozen" ones - which are contained in plasma clouds and external magnetic fields - also have an impact. The magnetic field that is located in the plasma cloud is inextricably linked to its internal (frozen) magnetic field. This field resembles a flexible and stretchable, but elastic bone. This property allows plasma formation, which collapses under the influence of external influences and retains its integrity, despite the fact that it is deformed. A fragment of a plasma cloud can be separated from its main part with a sufficiently strong external influence. In this case, the connections of the lines of force of the frozen magnetic field will occur. The field will close again and a new plasma object will appear, which will be smaller than the "mother" one, but at the same time it will look like it.
It should be noted that the distinctive features of a separate plasma formation with a frozen magnetic field are its resistance to fusion with another plasma object. In the process of implementing this event, special conditions must be created that will require a large amount of energy. This feature, for example, determines the processes in the photosphere (see Suns, photosphere) and in the lower layers of the atmosphere, the interaction of solar wind clouds with the magnetosphere of planets, etc. Wherever there is a sufficient number of plasma objects that interact with each other.
Most of the matter in the universe is in the form of plasma. Plasma is used to create stars, interstellar and galactic clouds, solar wind, and other space objects. Its properties have a huge impact on the evolution of space objects."
Pressure of degenerate electron gas
Pressure of degenerate electron gas - by virtue of the Pauli prohibition principle, there is a pressure of electrons that opposes the compressi on of the star matter at the white dwarf stage.
Pressure of degenerate neutron gas
Pressure of degenerate neutron gas - the suppression of neutrons, which is a consequence of the Pauli prohibition principle, contributes to the reduction of the force of compression of the matter of the star at the moment of its transition to the neutron star stage.
Primary cosmic rays
Primary cosmic rays - Fragments of cosmic rays that come from outside the Earth's atmosphere (as opposed to secondary cosmic rays, the particles of which are characterized by the formation of primary cosmic rays in collision with gas molecules of the Earth's atmosphere).
Primary Fireball
Primary Fireball - According to some reports, it was this extremely hot gas (consisting mainly of elementary particles and radiation) that made up the entire observable universe immediately after the Big Bang.
Protoplanetary disk
A protoplanetary disk is a gas-dust disk that orbits around a young star and contains remnants of protostellar matter. If the radiating star does not destroy the disk completely, small protoplanetary bodies are being formed in it. Some of them later unite with large planets and their satellites, and another part remains as asteroids and comet nuclei
Protostar
Protostar - At this stage of development, the star is in the stage of its completion, up to the moment of the beginning of thermonuclear reactions in the core, after which the compression of the protostar stops, and it becomes the main sequence.
Pulsar
Pulsar - In fact, it is a pulsed source of radio emission, which is a kind of neutron star.
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Quasars
Quasars - Entertaining and very distant extragalactic objects emitting huge waves of electromagnetic radiation with relatively small angular dimensions. The radiation power of quasars is comparable to the energy flows emanating from galaxies.
It is worth emphasizing that we see all cosmic bodies as they were at the time of their birth, and this happened as long ago as it took for their electromagnetic radiation to reach the Solar System.
The radiation of quasars spreads in all spectra of electromagnetic radiation, which gave them their name. They got it due to the fact that they were initially discovered as sources of radio emission. At the moment, about several thousand similar objects have been discovered.
When detecting the frequency of radiation of quasars, which lasts for several months or even weeks, it can be concluded that their sizes are relatively small, they amount to less than one parsecs, and in terms of radiation power they surpass entire galaxies. Studying the mechanism of quasar radiation is still insufficient.
It should be assumed that they contain supermassive black holes that were formed by millions of stars they absorbed. The nature of quasars lies in the fact that these are active nuclei of distant galaxies that were formed at the initial stages of the evolution of the universe and we can observe them as they were before.
There are two types of quasars: these are quasars and quasars. The level of radio emission observed in their spectra is relatively low, which is the reason for the absence of the letters "r" in the names of these space objects, unlike quasars.
Recently, the use of the term microquasar has become popular. Since that time, they have been referred to as previously unknown space objects that exist in our galaxy.
They are black holes with a mass that is characteristic of stars, not galaxies. They create electromagnetic radiation in the X-ray range and emit streams of cosmic rays that have a speed close to the speed of light. As a result of the accretion of matter left after supernova explosions onto their stellar pairs, their convergence process takes place.
Following the estimates of the energy and chronology of the existence of quasars and microquasars, it can be assumed that they are different types of space objects."
R
Radar
Radar - The word "radar" comes from the Latin radio - to emit rays and locatio - location.
One of the ways to study space objects. Using radar, it is possible to compare the parameters of the radio waves emitted by the antenna and reflected from the object. In the case when radio emission is emitted in the form of pulses, it becomes possible to measure the distance to the object using the delay time of their return. As a result of attenuation of the intensity of reflected radiation and the possibility of its polarization, it is possible to obtain information about the physical properties of the surfaces of space objects. As a result of the use of radar, the distances between the Earth and various bodies of the Solar System are being clarified, meteoroids and the structure of the Earth's ionosphere are being studied, and planetary surface properties are being studied using spacecraft. Let's say that the map of the surface of Venus was created only through the use of this method. Previously, radar was used to determine the position of aircraft for air defense purposes.
Radial belts
Radial belts - The outer layers of the atmosphere, in which charged particles of high energies (tens of MeV) are retained and accumulate in the magnetic field of the planet. With the help of the Earth's magnetic field, which captures solar wind particles (protons and electrons), two toroidal regions are created around the Earth, which are located at an altitude of about 4,000 and 17,000 km from the Earth's surface.
Radial velocity
Radial velocity is the projection of an object's velocity vector onto the observer's line of sight, and is considered positive when the object is moving away from it and negative when it is approaching.
Radio Galaxy
Radio Galaxy - This galaxy has an unusual radio emission. As a rule, these are huge and massive galaxies with a dense central region called the core. The most powerful radio galaxies have a higher luminosity in the radio range than the optical luminosity.
Radio telescope
Radio telescope - This device is designed to register electromagnetic radiation emanating from space objects in the radio bands of their spectrum. A system that collects a stream of radio radiation and receives it to an antenna receiver (see Radiation receiver, antenna) is called a radio telescope.
A movable or rotatable antenna system can be mounted on telescopes that are used as ground-based radio telescopes.
The most typical dimensions for systems with fixed antennas are several hundred meters. For example, the radio telescope in Arecibo has a diameter of 300 meters, and in the village of Zelenchukskaya it is 600 meters. The undeniable disadvantage of these systems is the inability to select objects of observation.
Rotary systems have the ability to rotate telescopes so that they can observe a celestial object at any point in the sky, and also, compensating for the daily rotation of the Earth, they can monitor the object for quite a long time. Their surface is made of metal mirrors, which have a diameter of several tens of meters. The level of precision in the manufacture of their surface can be significantly lower than that of optical mirrors.
Since the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation in the radio range is very large, the resolution of a single radio telescope is very small. Also in this regard, the interferometry method has become widespread in radio astronomy. However, in recent years, the bases of interferometers have increased and reached intercontinental distances between their radiation receivers. To solve some scientific problems, these bases are insufficient. This makes it especially relevant to launch even small radio telescopes into outer space, which are used to work together with ground-based antennas and conduct interferometric measurements with a large base.
Radioactivity
Radioactivity - Smooth transformation of one atomic nucleus into another.
Relativity theory
Relativity theory - The physical concept of space and time, which was created by Albert Einstein, eliminated many contradictions in physics that arose at the beginning of the twentieth century. This concept has been helping us to study the processes in the universe for many years.
General characteristics
The adoption of the general principles of relativity explains the phenomenon of gravity as a manifestation of the geometric properties of space and time. According to the authors of this theory, substances, radiation and various physical fields are always present in the void of space. The arrangement of masses and energy are the defining geometric properties of the space-time in which matter is moving.
The reason for the need to develop a general approach to the theory of relativity was the discovery of a contradiction between the fundamental principle of special relativity (see here) and its basic principle - limiting the propagation speed of any signals to the speed of light, as well as the instantaneous action of gravitational forces implied in classical physics.
In addition, it was necessary to compare two quantities: the gravitational mass, which determines the measure of interaction of bodies in the law of universal gravitation, and the inertial mass, which determines the measure of acceleration of a body under the influence of force in Newton's second law. There is a problem that arose simultaneously with Newton's development of his theories, but he never found an answer to the question: how do these properties of a physical body, which manifest themselves in different situations, which are designated as masses, relate.
The fundamental principle of general relativity states that the gravitational field is an accelerated frame of reference. On the other hand, the values of the gravitational and inertial mass of the same body are equal. It follows from this that any observer inside a closed cabin has no experimental possibilities to verify the fact that it is moving at speed or is in a gravitational field.
According to the concept, all events in the universe take place in a four-dimensional coordinate system. Of these, three are spatial, and the fourth is time. Bodies with their masses create vibrations in four-dimensional space, which is Einstein's. By doing this, they force each other to move along curved trajectories, which means their accelerated movement is analogous to gravity. This phenomenon is described using non-Euclidean, Riemannian geometry, which makes it difficult to visualize them.
With the help of general relativity, important conclusions can be drawn about how the universe works.
A light photon has mass, which is why it loses energy to overcome the gravitational field. At the same time, due to the decrease in the energies of photons, but not their velocity, light waves that deal with them according to the principle of dualism have longer lengths. A "gravitational redshift" appeared.
Due to the effects of gravity, time flows slower in it. However, this slowdown is greater the higher the field strength. The presence of this effect in our environment is minimal, but it is nevertheless present. So, a clock located one meter below the others in the Earth's gravity field should lag behind the upper ones by 1 * 10-16 seconds every 10-16 seconds.
To date, the general theory of relativity has quite convincing evidence. These primarily include: measurements of deviations in the directions of propagation of starlight in the gravitational field of the Sun and the secular displacement of the perihelion of Mercury's orbit - 43 angular seconds per hundred years; registration of “reddening” of photons of electromagnetic radiation in very intense gravitational fields of stars with high density; establishment of proportionality (because equivalence - equality - cannot be experimentally verified) of gravitational and inertial masses with an accuracy better than 10-12; a complete and rigorous description of the nature of black holes, the existence of which is no longer in doubt.
Level
With the help of special relativity, it is possible to understand that there is a relationship between time and space. This is manifested in shortening the length and duration of body movement, as well as in predicting the effect of increasing body weight with increasing speed. In its concept, there is no possibility of instant connection between any events that occur in different places in space, since the speed of propagation of the signal and the impact is equal to the speed of light in a vacuum.
Scientists believe that the basic idea underlying the special theory of relativity is that the rest mass of a light photon is zero, which means that it is impossible for an observer with superluminal speed to catch up with a photon and then move with it in the same direction at the speed of light. It contains all the main provisions of this theory.
If it is impossible for a material body to reach the speed of light, it is necessary to take into account the probability of an increase in its mass with increasing speed and the tendency to infinity as the speed of the body approaches the speed of light. The body grows in volume due to the energy that is spent on its acceleration, and moreover, the mass of the body is a measure of the energy that is contained in it.
A direct analogue of this dependence can be found in the famous Einstein relation: “the total energy of any body is equal to the product of its mass by the speed of light, which is raised to the second power.”
At the same time, an increase in body weight with an increase in speed is not felt in everyday life. An example is a spacecraft with a maximum speed of 11.2 kilometers per second (see Cosmic Velocity Two), which has a rest mass of 1.5 tons and has the ability to increase its mass due to the energy of rocket fuel by one milligram. With the help of the energy of the electric field of accelerators, which operate at a speed of 260000 km/ s, protons increase their mass. This fact has been experimentally confirmed during research on particle accelerators.
In order to fulfill the condition that an observer is unable to chase light and move at the speed of light, it is necessary to accept that the speed of light is the same regardless of whether the light comes from a source or it is stationary. It does not add up at the speed of light, as required by classical physics, in accordance with its laws. As a result, from the point of view of an observer outside a moving body, time in the coordinate system slows down, and the dimensions in the direction of movement decrease.
The size reduction and time dilation in daily life are very small. Let's assume that the Earth has a diameter in the direction of its orbit at a speed of 29.765 km/s, which is 6 centimeters less than if it were moving in the opposite direction, from the point of view of an observer located at a distance from the Sun.
In fact, in order for a body with a rest mass to reach the maximum speed of light, three conditions must be met: an increase in its mass to infinity, a reduction in the size of the body in the direction of movement to zero, and a stop of time in the coordinate system that connects it with the environment.
All of this is true if we consider it from the point of view of an earthly observer who is watching the flight of a starship striving to reach the speed of light. Although, it would seem that the same thing can be applied to a member of the crew of a spaceship that is in orbit around the Earth and watching it. At first glance, the conditions in the coordinate systems that relate to the Earth and the spaceship are equal. This contradiction can be eliminated, taking into account the following circumstances. In order to achieve any velocity of one body relative to another body, it must be in a state of acceleration for some time. In this case, the coordinate systems that deal with these bodies turn out to be unequal, and the coordinate system that deals with a body that has acceleration is non-inertial. The effect of time dilation takes place in a non-inertial system, which is subject to acceleration, and the study of this phenomenon is carried out within the framework of the general (see here) the theory of relativity.
Due to the special theory of relativity, the photon cannot be used as the basis for creating a coordinate system. In this system, time is stopped, and the length in the direction of movement of the photon is zero.
Relic radiation
Relic radiation - Coming with the same intensity from all sides of the sky, electromagnetic radiation has a spectrum corresponding to thermal radiation at a temperature of 2.73 K. It is also called microwave background radiation or microwave electric radiation. It is believed that about 13 billion years of relic radiation were created. years ago, when the universe as a whole was much denser and hotter than it is now. During the further expansion of the universe, the radiation temperature decreased by about 1000 times.
Resolution of the optical device
Resolution of the optical device - A distinctive feature that characterizes its ability to obtain separate images of two points of the object of observation close to each other.
Roche Cavity
Roche Cavity - A sphere located around a star in a binary system, which is the boundary of the equipotential surface on which the first Lagrange point is located. In the most general form, for a body in the Roche cavity, the gravitational force of the star, which is located in this cavity, prevails.
Roche limit surface
Roche limit surface - A sphere that surrounds stars in a binary system and measures the effective boundary of the gravitational influence of each of them.
S
SaT IoT
SaT IoT - This is the Internet of Things, which is accessible via satellite.
Satellite
Satellite - A body that is natural or artificial, orbiting around the main body – an asteroid, planet, star, galaxy.
Satellite navigation system
Satellite navigation system - The system, which is called the "satellite navigation system" (GNSS, eng. Global Navigation Satellite System, GNSS), is designed to determine the coordinates of various objects: land, water and air, as well as spacecraft that are in low Earth orbit. Satellite navigation systems have the ability to change the speed and direction of movement of the signal receiver. They can also be used to get the exact time. These systems include space equipment and a ground component (control system).
Satellite system
Satellite system - In a broad sense, a satellite system is a collection of interconnected objects that are in orbit around an object of planetary mass (including dwarf planets and asteroids) or a minor planet, or its barycenter. In fact, it is a collection of satellites that are natural. However, such systems may consist of bodies such as planetary disks and rings, moons, satellites of minor planets and artificial satellites, each of which can create its own satellite system. (For more information, see Satellites). Other bodies have quasi-satellites whose orbits are influenced by the gravity of their main star, but they are usually not part of a satellite system. These systems can have complex interactions, including magnetic, tidal, and atmospheric interactions. Orbital resonances and libration are also possible. There are separate large satellite objects, which are indicated by Roman numerals. As a rule, satellites are designated either by possessive adjectives to their main system (for example, "Jupiter system"), or, in rare cases, by the name of this system (for example, "Jupiter system"). In the event that only two satellites are known, or they represent a double system with a common center of gravity, the names of the main and main satellites can be used to designate it in the form of hyphenated letter combinations (for example, "Earth-Moon system").
It is known that some of the objects in the Solar System have satellite systems, but their origin is still unclear. Key examples include the Jupiter system with 95 known moons, including the large Galilean moons, and the largest overall Saturn system with 146 significant moons (including Titan, the rings of the Solar System and the most visible elements). Both satellite systems have a very large number of different systems. According to research, all the giant planets of the Solar system have huge satellite systems and planetary rings, which is a common pattern. Some objects farther from the Sun have satellite systems consisting of several moons and complex orbital systems of Pluto, in which several objects unite around a common center of mass, as well as many asteroids and plutinos. In addition to the Earth-Moon system and two small natural satellites of Mars, other planets of the Earth group are not included in the list of satellite systems, although there are artificial satellites in their orbits that were created using technologies developed on Earth.
To date, almost nothing is known about the existence of satellite systems outside the Solar System, although it is assumed that they are widespread. The given example of an extrasolar satellite system can be called J1407b. It is believed that planets that have been ejected from their planetary system can retain a satellite system.
Satellite-communications
A type of space-based radio communication based on the use of artificial earth satellites, usually specialised communications satellites, as repeaters. Satellite communications take place between earth stations, which can be either stationary or mobile.
A satellite communications and broadcasting system is not just a repeater in orbit, but also a number of ground stations. The principle of operation has not changed over the years - a signal is sent from one of the ground stations to a satellite, from where it is retransmitted to other objects within the coverage area. A satellite repeater can be either passive or active. In the first case, there is no signal correction, everything is 'hoped' to be within the wide coverage area of the repeater. This was the case with the American "Echo-1" system mentioned above.
Modern satellite communications systems use active repeaters that not only receive the signal from the ground station, but also amplify it. The main elements of communications satellites are therefore radio-wave power amplifiers, which make it possible to increase the distance over which radio signals are transmitted. The most effective of these are known as travelling wave lamps (TWLs) - electro-vacuum devices capable of amplifying power by hundreds of thousands of times. TWLs are also used in the ground equipment of satellite communications systems.
Saturn
The planet Saturn is the sixth most distant from the Sun and the second largest of all the planets in the Solar system, after Jupiter. According to the generally accepted classification, the planet Saturn is a gas giant planet. Saturn was named after the Roman god of agriculture.
Scattered clusters
Scattered clusters - Interstellar clusters that form in the disks of irregular and spiral galaxies usually consist of several hundred or thousands of young or middle-aged stars (10-100 million years).
Schwarzschild radius
Schwarzschild radius - The diameter of the event horizon that surrounds the Schwarzschild black hole.
Secondary cosmic rays
Secondary cosmic rays - secondary particles that resulted from the interaction of primary cosmic ray particles, which came from outer space, and atoms in the Earth's atmosphere.
Seismograph
A seismograph (or seismometer) is a measuring device that is used in seismic activities to detect and record all types of waves. It is designed to determine the strength and direction of an earthquake, as well as its measurement.
Seyfert Galaxies
Seyfert Galaxies - This is an example of spiral galaxies in which active nuclei take place. The name was given in honor of the American astronomer Carl Seifert (1911-1960). Seiftian galaxies have one distinctive feature – their bright, very compact (star-shaped) core with wide emission lines in the spectrum. About 1% of spiral galaxies are Seyfert galaxies.
Sheer line
Sheer line - The line that separates the horizon and the vertical is called a vertical line. On the celestial sphere, it crosses the orbit at the zenith and nadir points. By the name, it can be understood that the vertical line is set by the direction of the plumb line.
Shooting stars
Shooting stars - variable stars tend to increase their brightness abruptly and non-periodically, usually for a few minutes or even seconds. It is noticed that in some cases the amplitude of the flare can reach, although usually it does not exceed 1-2m.
Shunting engine
Shunting engine - A maneuvering engine is an auxiliary engine used to steer a spacecraft.
Sirius
On January 16, 1862, Alvan Clark, an American astronomer and telescope maker, discovered Sirius B, the first white dwarf.
Sirius, also known as α Canis Majoris or the brightest star in the night sky, has a luminosity 22 times that of the Sun. However, this is not a record in the world of stars. Sirius' high apparent brilliance is due to its relative proximity. Sirius is visible from all regions of the Earth except for the northernmost areas. It is located 8.67 light-years away from the solar system and is one of the closest stars to us.
In 1844, Friedrich Bessel proposed that Sirius was a binary star system. In 1862, Alvan Clarke discovered a companion star orbiting Sirius, which is sometimes referred to as Sirius A. The two stars orbit around a common center of mass at a distance of about 20 astronomical units with a rotation period close to 50 years. In 1915, astronomers at Mount Wilson Observatory determined that Sirius B was a white dwarf, making it the first white dwarf to be discovered. It is interesting to note that Sirius B must have been significantly more massive than Sirius A in the past, as it had already left the main sequence during evolution.
According to modern research, Sirius is estimated to be around 230 million years old (with estimates varying from 200 to 300 million years). Initially, Sirius was composed of two blue-white stars of spectral class B: one component (Sirius B) had a mass of 5 solar masses, while the other (Sirius A) had a mass of 2 solar masses. Sirius B burned through and became a red giant before shedding its outer shell, leaving it in its current white dwarf state. Its mass is now slightly less than that of the Sun, while Sirius A's mass remains about twice that of the Sun.
SLIM
Smart Lander for Investigating Moon (SLIM) — это маломасштабный исследовательский посадочный модуль, предназначенный для точечных посадок на Луну поверхности, уменьшение размеров и веса оборудования, используемого при высадке на Луну, и исследования происхождения Луны. Он также Технология тестирования, лежащая в основе исследования в условиях низкой гравитации, что является важным требованием для будущих научных исследований. Исследование Солнечной системы.
Цели миссии SLIM, таким образом, JAXA стремится внести свой вклад в будущие миссии по изучению Луна и другие планеты;
- Демонстрация точных методов высадки на Луну, воплощенных в маленьком эксплорере
- Ускорение изучения Луны и других планет с помощью более легких методов исследования система
Будущие научные исследования Солнца потребуют такого уровня точности навигации, к которому стремится JAXA через миссию SLIM. По мере того, как научное знание опирается на объект исследования, более конкретные исследования будут необходимый. Точное размещение космических аппаратов облегчает экспертизу. Кроме того, планетарные исследования потребуют высокопроизводительного оборудования для наблюдений. Сокращение Система разведки может усилить инструменты, которые должны быть размещены в месте, особенно подходящем для ее Миссия десанта.
Проект SLIM (Smart Lander for Investigation the Moon) — это миссия по исследованию технологии точечной посадки, необходимой для будущих лунных зондов, и проверке ее на поверхности Луны с помощью мелкомасштабного зонда.
Создав посадочный модуль SLIM, люди сделают качественный сдвиг в сторону возможности приземляться там, где мы хотим, а не только там, где легко приземлиться, как это было раньше. Достигнув этого, можно будет высадиться на планеты, еще более скудные на ресурсы, чем Луна.
В настоящее время возросли знания о целевых астрономических объектах, и детали, которые должны быть изучены, стали более конкретными, так что стали необходимы высокоточные посадки вблизи объекта исследования.
Кроме того, возникнет необходимость в оснащении зондов более функциональными наблюдательными приборами для будущих исследовательских зондов Солнечной системы. В рамках подготовки к этому времени системы зондов становятся более легкими, и снижение веса зондов будет иметь существенное значение для того, чтобы иметь возможность распределять ресурсы для наблюдательных устройств.
Посадочный модуль SLIM нацелен на создание малогабаритной, легкой системы зондов и технологии точечной посадки, а также на вклад в будущие лунные зонды.
Дата запуска: 8:42:11 7 сентября 2023 г.
Место запуска: Стартовый комплекс Ёсинобу в Космическом центре JAXA Танэгасима
Ракета-носитель: Ракета-носитель H-IIA No 47
Solar activity
Solar activity - Its characteristics include such characteristics as the number of spots, torches, the number and degree of prominence development, the size and structure of the corona (see here), as well as the intensity of electromagnetic radiation from the Sun and the flux from it. The activity observed in the Sun has a cyclical change (see Solar activity cycles). This is due to the processes that are not fully understood in its depths.
Solar flares
Solar flares - In fact, solar flares are powerful and rapidly developing local processes in the Sun, as a result of which a large amount of energy is released. At the same time, their development lasts for several minutes, and their attenuation lasts for several hours. Flares have been observed occurring in the activity zones that surround sunspots (see here), as well as between spots with opposite magnetic polarities.
The reason for their occurrence is a sharp change in the state of the magnetic field (see physical, electromagnetic field) and plasma of the chromosphere (see Suns, chromosphere) and, in particular, the corona (see Sun, corona), which occurs when new or evolutionary changes in existing magnetic fluxes appear. With the help of changes in magnetic fields, so-called unstable electric currents are created in the plasma - layers that accumulate magnetic energy. Due to the instability of these layers, as well as due to the attachment of magnetic lines of force, magnetic energy is released and converted into heat and energy of the movement of plasma flows.
This circumstance leads to a thousandfold increase in plasma density and an extremely strong increase in temperature. Starting from a certain value, it increases to the limits at which thermonuclear reactions are possible (see Nuclear reactions). These events take place in very limited places. However, the flare can cover only about 0.1% of the visible hemisphere of the Sun. These conditions cause protons and electrons to accelerate to relativistic speeds. This is accompanied by powerful electromagnetic radiation, which spreads throughout its entire spectrum. Huge hydrodynamic shock waves act in these areas, which lead to additional heating of the solar chromosphere and corona (see Suns, corona; chromosphere).
It is the activity of the Sun, which is a consequence of its outbursts, that affects the state of near-Earth space. It is capable of increasing the level of ionization of the earth's upper atmosphere, causing magnetic storms, as well as seismic phenomena.
Solar panels (solar battery)
Solar panels (solar battery) - A solar battery or solar photovoltaic panel is a set of photovoltaic converters (photocells) that directly convert solar energy into direct electric current, unlike solar collectors that heat a coolant material.
Solar wind
Solar wind - A stream of protons and electrons at great speed, which constantly emanates from the Sun.
Solar wind
Solar wind - Energy flows penetrating into the plasma, which have their own magnetic field (see physical, electromagnetic field), originate in the solar corona and spread to the periphery of the Solar System at distances reaching several tens of astronomical units, called the solar wind. Its main components are considered to be protons and electrons, but it also contains helium, silicon, sulfur and iron nuclei, neon and argon atoms. The possible speeds of various solar wind streams range between 300 and 700 km/s, and sometimes even exceed 1200 km/s. From the poles of the Sun, the wind enters the polar regions at a high speed (about 700 km/s), as well as stable in intensity. The movement of the solar wind from the equatorial regions has a slow speed (about 300 km/s) and is unstable. It reflects changes in the activity of the Sun, as well as its fluctuations. It is not necessary to mix the solar wind and the sun's rays, since they are separate charged particles that move away from the Sun, but do not combine with the magnetic field.
Solar-terrestrial relations
Solar-terrestrial relations - The complex of interrelations that link the processes of heliophysics and geophysics is called solar-terrestrial connections. Considering that the Earth has no effect on the Sun due to its small size, only the effect of the Sun on the Earth through its electromagnetic energy, the flow of the solar wind and the associated magnetic field is taken into account (see physical, electromagnetic field). A change in the intensity of these impacts leads to a change in the size and shape of the Earth's magnetosphere. The auroras are intensifying. Magnetic storms are the result of erratic changes in the Earth's magnetic field. This has an impact on: failures in radio communication, disruptions in the functioning of power lines, changes in weather and climatic conditions on the planet, and also affects the health of people.
Space
Space is a category that defines the properties of material objects, for which there is a possibility of dividing them among themselves. For these objects in space, relationships of sizes, distances and other characteristics are established that allow a variety of objects and interactions between them to exist at the same time.
According to modern concepts, space is quantum. At the moment, the size of the quantum of space is 1.6 * 10-35 meters. It is called the "Planck length".
To determine the position of a point in real time, you need to know three coordinates, since space is three-dimensional. In some cases, time is added to the three coordinates of space, and then we are talking about a four-dimensional physical space. To date, there is no reliable evidence that space has additional dimensions. The term "multidimensional spaces" is used in theoretical physics to refer to multidimensional spaces, but they have nothing to do with real space.
The question arises about the infinity or finiteness of real space, its closure or blurriness. These questions are directly related to the density and latent mass of the universe.
Space debris
Space debris - In a broad sense, space debris is all failed spacecraft, spent rocket and other devices, and their parts that continue to be in near-Earth orbits. If we count according to approximate data, we can assume that in near-Earth space there are about eight thousand objects with sizes greater than 10 centimeters, as well as several thousand with sizes of 1-10 centimeters and hundreds of thousands with sizes less than 1 centimeter. Unfortunately, recently space debris has become a major threat to newly created spacecraft. However, effective ways to combat it have not yet been developed.
Space devices
Space devices.
Any technical devices that are used in space to carry out their activities are referred to as spacecraft. They are divided into two large categories: manned and unpiloted. The former are spaceships and stations, and the latter are automatic vehicles.
The glow.
Rays from space are streams of individual charged particles with great velocity that come from outer space. Protons predominate in their composition, but electrons, helium nuclei and heavier chemical elements are also present. Some of these nuclei have a mass number exceeding 30 atomic units of mass.
There are solar cosmic rays, which are created by the Sun, and the so-called galactic cosmic rays, which are part of our Solar system. The energy index of solar cosmic rays does not exceed 1010 electron volts. The particles of galactic cosmic rays have a much higher energy, reaching 1021 electron volts. At the same time, the limiting energies of charged particles accelerated in their terrestrial accelerators do not exceed 1015 electron volts.
It has now become generally accepted that other space objects can be sources of galactic cosmic rays. Regarding the mechanisms by which charged particles of galactic cosmic rays acquire their high velocities, i.e., strictly speaking, kinetic energy or their enormous energies, it is not entirely clear and understandable that they are accelerated as a result of the influence of powerful electric or magnetic fields (see physical, electromagnetic fields).
A large number of particles of galactic cosmic rays with very high energies have not been detected. Today, 10 particles with an energy greater than 5•1019 electron volts have been experimentally registered. Based on this, it can be concluded that for particles with an energy of 1019 electron volts, the average density of their flux is about 1 particle every 100 years.
The size of the streams of solar cosmic rays, which are formed during intensive processes on the Sun, is much larger. There is a possibility that they can reach values of up to 105 particles in a time interval of 1 cm2 per second, and this is their main threat to astronauts.
These streams of solar cosmic rays can harm the human body not only on board a spacecraft located outside the Earth's magnetosphere, but also on the surfaces of cosmic bodies that do not have sufficient magnetic fields. For example, the Moon and Mars are such bodies.
The creation of human settlements on the Moon will have some difficulties due to the need for protection from sunlight and equipment of living quarters under the surface of the satellite. Mars has special magnetic fields that protect its vast territories and settlements can be placed in them under the open sky.
Conducting scientific research.
Space scientific research can be carried out using special equipment that is installed on spacecraft (more information about this can be found here).
The topic of research is space bodies, the space environment and matter with biological objects that are exposed to cosmic factors: weightlessness, vacuum, etc.
Several areas of these studies are dynamically developing.
Astronomical observations from spacecraft are the study of distant galactic and extragalactic objects using telescopes operating in a wide range of electromagnetic radiation and cosmic ray receivers (see here). This method makes it possible to eliminate interference from the Earth's atmosphere and obtain unique information about cosmological (see Cosmology) objects that cannot be obtained by terrestrial methods.
Conducting research using instruments that are installed on artificial Earth satellites allows you to explore the near-Earth space environment, the parameters of which depend very much on the influence of the Sun. When studying the properties of the Earth's ionosphere, the electric and magnetic fields that are associated with it are measured. This information helps to understand the complex mechanisms of the Sun's influence, which affect many processes and events vital to humanity. Such events also include reliably recorded accidents that occurred on extended technical structures: power lines, cable lines, etc., as a result of exposure to sunlight or parasitic electric currents. Currently, it is known that solar activity has a huge impact on the Earth's biosphere, the state of health and well-being of people.
Scientists have created a whole class of spacecraft that will explore the Sun from near-Earth orbits and from interplanetary trajectories. The purpose of such research is to understand the influence of the Sun on all processes on Earth, since it is the closest to us and a fairly typical star. His corona is a natural laboratory for studying the basic characteristics of plasma, and is also the immediate reason for conducting research.
The planets and small bodies of the Solar system are studied with the help of spacecraft that are heading towards them. The study is carried out using vehicles that fly near objects or enter orbit around them, as well as descent devices, which can be both stationary probes and mobile mechanisms such as lunar rovers. This line of research is conducted on the basis of a newly emerged science called "comparative planetary science". Knowledge of the mechanisms of the origin and development of the planets of the Solar system, as well as possible trends in the evolution of the Earth, should be achieved within the framework of this science. In the 21st century, it will be necessary to prepare for interplanetary flights, which will be carried out in manned mode. It is also necessary to study the possibility of changing the physical conditions on the surface of Mars and Venus in order to ensure that our descendants live there in the distant future.
Astronauts and cosmonauts are engaged in research in the field of space medicine and biology on the basis of manned spacecraft and orbital stations. Their main goal is to prepare spacecraft crews for long interplanetary crossings.
Research is currently underway in the field of space material. The possibilities of developing and producing various types of materials, bio- and medical preparations with improved or new properties compared to materials obtained on Earth are being clarified.
Space geodesy
"Space geodesy (from the Greek. geo - earth, and diairo - divide) is engaged in the study of the Earth.
The function of space - satellite geodesy is to determine the relative position of two or more points on the Earth's surface. It is assumed that the problem will be solved by simultaneous observation of the same artificial Earth satellite (ISS) from them. In order to do this, more precise definitions of the position of the satellite on the celestial sphere and the distance to it are needed. At the moment, these measurements are made using radiometodes, as well as laser rangefinders.
(from Latin. navigo - sailing through the sea).
The main activities in the field of space navigation:
To determine the position in the atmosphere or on the surface of our planet of any object, such as an airplane, ship or car, which is equipped with special equipment, it is necessary to establish communication with navigation artificial satellites of the Earth. In some cases, this method of navigation is called satellite navigation.
It is assumed that this will be related to determining the position of spacecraft in space and calculating the elements of orbits, as well as the possibility of changing the parameters of their movement.
The platform level.
Using the term "space platform", it is possible to describe the part of the apparatus entrusted with the function of providing the necessary conditions for the operation of a payload in space - equipment that is used for scientific research, remote sensing of the Earth, organization of radio communications, etc..
In fact, this is a modular technology for creating a space platform, which allows, with minimal cost and a relatively short period of time, to adapt the capabilities of the platform to use as part of various types of spacecraft that have different target equipment.
Communication services.
Space communication capabilities include the transmission of information between ground stations (NP) and space objects; between NP using Earth relay satellites; between space objects using natural Earth satellites - relay satellites.
Various types of information can be used as information: telemetry, telegraphic, telephone, television, etc. Currently, communication with outer space is the most common, which is used to communicate with remote and sparsely populated areas of the Earth. Some territories can provide themselves with telephone and television only through the use of satellite communications. Currently, work is underway to organize global individual interplanetary telephone and paging communications.
Rules of the game: speed first.
The speed required to enter the lowest circular orbit around a massive space object of any physical body: a spacecraft, a fragment of the main object, etc. An increase in speed beyond the first space leads to an increase in the eccentricity (see Orbits, eccentricity) of the orbit to the point that it transforms into a parabola (see here - the second speed). According to research, the first cosmic velocity for Earth is 7.9 km/s. For more information, see Kepler's laws.
Let's compare: the speed of a modern car is 150 km/h, which means a speed of 41.7 m/s. Also, the speed of a bullet from a firearm is 0.8 km/s. And the speed of a fighter flying at the speed of sound is 1,155 km/s.
Instantaneous speed.
The minimum required speed for leaving - escaping - from a massive space object along the parabolic trajectory of any physical body: a molecule (see Dissipation), a spacecraft, a fragment of the main object, etc. An increase in speed beyond the second space leads to an increase in the eccentricity (see Orbits, eccentricity) of the trajectory, i.e. to its transformation into an increasingly an "open" hyperbole.
According to research, the second cosmic velocity for Earth is 11.2 km/s. For more information, see Kepler's laws.
The final speed of the third.
To overcome the attraction of the Sun and enter a parabolic trajectory relative to it, a minimum speed value is required. When starting from Earth, it has a speed of 16.0 km/s and should move in the direction of the orbital velocity of our planet, which means its connection with it. The change in the speed of the Earth's orbital movement occurs at a time when its orbit is not circular, but elliptical (see Kepler's laws), but at the same time its average speed is 29.765 km/s. According to the results obtained, the average third cosmic velocity relative to the Sun in Earth orbit is approximately 46 km/s. This speed, in relation to the Sun, is the second cosmic speed (see here - the second speed), if you start from a height of 150 million kilometers above its surface. For more information, see Kepler's laws."
Space law
Space law (international space law) is a set of special norms of modern general international law that regulate the relations of states among themselves, with international intergovernmental organizations, the relations of such organizations in connection with the implementation of space activities by all of them, as well as establishing the international legal regime for such activities within outer space, the Moon and other celestial bodies.
Space masers
Space masers - The word comes from the initial letters of the English words Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation, which means an increase in microwave radiation as a result of stimulated emission of radiation.
Masers, which are natural in space, are clusters of interstellar gas. They are clusters of excited molecules that have higher than normal electron energies of their atoms or their vibrational and rotational motion. There are various reasons for this state of the gas. For example, its heating by nearby stars or clouds with increased radiation, but these clouds have the ability to increase the level of radio emission passing through them. The mechanism for increasing the intensity of the radiation is based on the conversion under the influence of high-frequency radio radiation of a large number of excited molecules to their normal state, in which they emit radio waves of the same wavelength and are directed in the same direction as the radiation that caused this transition. Always when external factors act, the molecules return to the excited state again, and the process does not stop.
Space probe
Space probes and aircraft have been created to carry out physical research of near-Earth interplanetary space, celestial bodies of the Solar System and their surroundings. Unlike high-speed satellites, high-speed sounding rockets and high-altitude probes, spacecraft carry out measurements at distances from the Earth's surface exceeding the radius of the Earth. If we consider the term "K.", which is applied to satellite systems that have been launched into orbits with low and medium eccentricity, then he means them. z. "Z" is not used in this context. This category includes spacecraft that are used for flights to the Moon and planets. The birth of the world's first spacecraft, which was named "Luna-1", took place in the USSR on January 2, 1959. On January 4, 1959, it was placed into a hyperbolic orbit other than the Earth's, and moving along it, on January 4, 1959, it appeared near the Moon, leaving the Earth's gravitational zone and becoming the first artificial planet of the Solar system. Spacecraft launched into heliocentric orbits are often called long-range spacecraft. In domestic practice, such devices are often called automatic interplanetary stations (AMS), lunar stations, etc. In the United States, such devices are called lunar probes, Martian probes, etc. Space stations are often called probes for exploring the peripheral regions of near-Earth space and interplanetary space (for example, American IMP satellites, Soviet spacecraft that were part of the Electron system). Classical K. Z. Soviet spacecraft of the Zond series and American spacecraft of the Pioneer series are considered. They were designed to explore near-Earth and interplanetary space; the Zond series devices, starting with Zond-3, made a great contribution to the study of the Moon and its surroundings (see also "Luna").
Scientific research on the spacecraft is carried out either with the help of on-board equipment (measurements of particle fluxes, magnetic field, etc.), or by taking photographs and remote measurements. In order to obtain the results of experiments, they are usually transmitted via telemetry or television channels (for example, experiments with Luna-3, Venus series devices, etc.) or delivered to Earth in a return device. For example, these can be devices such as Luna-16, Zond.
In order to lay interplanetary routes, spacecraft are usually launched from an intermediate satellite orbit. Their landing on other celestial bodies is usually also carried out from an intermediate orbit, which is used to create an artificial satellite. In the case of return to Earth (for example, some spacecraft of the Zond series), re-entry into the atmosphere using the second cosmic velocity is used. The indicators of the trajectory of the KZ are determined using a system of radio engineering measurements. Sometimes photographic observations of comets that are artificial are used for this purpose (for example, when launching "Luna-1" and "Luna 2").
For the first time, experimental data on the peripheral regions of near-Earth outer space were obtained with the help of K. Z. As a result of the research, the Earth's magnetosphere was discovered and investigated. ("Luna-1", "Luna-2") the solar wind was discovered, which is a continuous stream of particles that the Sun emits in calm conditions and the release of particles characteristic of increased solar activity. In the process of studying the flows, magnetic fields were found in them, which were "frozen" in them. The interaction of solar wind fluxes with the Earth's magnetosphere has also been established, which is of great importance for studying the dynamics of magnetic storms, the occurrence of auroras and other geophysical phenomena caused by solar-terrestrial connections.
To. With the help of spacecraft that were launched to Venus and Mars, it was possible to obtain experimental data on how far away their nearest habitable planets and atmosphere are; also, thanks to them, photographs of the surface of the Moon and Mars were obtained, as well as the physical characteristics of the lunar soil were studied. In the course of recent studies, they were carried out both directly on the Moon and on samples of lunar soil that were delivered to Earth.
Space velocities
Space velocities are the minimum speeds at which a body can become a satellite of a massive object (first cosmic velocity), overcome the gravitational attraction of this object and move away from it “to infinity” (second cosmic velocity, or escape velocity) or (for the Solar System) overcome gravity of the Sun and leave the solar system (third cosmic speed). In the region of the Earth's surface, the second escape velocity is 11.2 km/s. At the surface of the Sun it is 620 km/s, and in the galaxy (in the region of the Sun’s orbit) it is about 400 km/s.
Special theory of relativity
Special theory of relativity - Einstein developed a theory according to which the laws of science should be the same for all observers, regardless of their speed.
Specific impulse
Specific impulse - An indicator that determines the efficiency of a rocket engine. To achieve a certain level of speed, the engine must use less fuel. The higher it is, the less fuel it consumes to achieve a given speed.
Spectral classes of stars
Spectral classes of stars - Subgroups of stars that differ in the intensity of their spectra. They are closely interrelated with the temperature of stellar atmospheres. The gap between neighboring spectral classes, which corresponds to the effective temperature range from 50,000 to 2,000 K and has 10 subclasses (from 0 to 9), is indicated by the letters O, B, A, F, G, K, M, L. The spectrometric class of the Sun is G2.
Spectrum
Spectrum (from Latin. spectrum (representation, image, vision) is a set of images that arise as a result of the perception of information.
In a narrow sense, it is the totality of all values of any value.
Using the concept of "electromagnetic radiation spectrum", it is possible to describe the totality of all values of its intensity for any wavelengths, frequencies or energy of its quanta. By tradition, it is customary to divide it into several parts. From the very beginning of the spectrum, this is the gamma, X-ray, ultraviolet and visible spectrum. You can also note the infrared, microwave and radio ranges. The fact of the spectrum manifestation occurs as a result of a change in the dispersion of radiation in terms of wavelengths, frequencies or energies of its quanta, or on the basis of direct measurements of the intensity of radiation in a wide range of its frequencies.
Modification of electromagnetic radiation is carried out using spectrometers in the visible, ultraviolet and infrared ranges. When studying the radiation spectrum in the gamma and X-ray ranges, as well as in the radio range, other equipment and special techniques are used for each of these ranges.
With the help of electromagnetic radiation receivers, it is possible to register the radiation energy level for certain wavelengths, frequencies or quanta of electromagnetic radiation. An observer can detect three different types of radiation spectrum, which depend on the parameters of the object: its aggregate state and temperature. This is a continuous spectrum, a linear emission spectrum and an absorption spectrum.
There are also Kirchhoff's laws.
Neutral radiation
The electromagnetic radiation spectrum, which is widespread in the optical range, is a series of parallel colored stripes or lines. The same radiation spectrum is observed in the radiation ranges invisible to the eye (see Radiation receiver, eye). The presence of radiation with such a spectrum is typical for heated gases under low pressure. Kirchhoff's law. The dependence of the location of the lines in the radiation spectrum and their shape depends on the chemical composition of the emitting gas or gas mixture.
Voluminous
The sphere of electromagnetic radiation in the optical range is a continuous spectrum, which consists of a continuous color band that changes its color from red to purple. When the human eye (see Radiation receiver, eye) is able to perceive electromagnetic radiation in other wavelengths, it could observe the duration of this continuous strip for both short and long waves. In another sense, if waves of any size are present in the radiation stream, it has a continuous spectrum. The spectrum of such radiation is distributed in the form of heated solids, as well as from the solar and most stellar photospheres (see Suns, photosphere). There are also Kirchhoff's laws.
Moisture
The transmission of light through the absorption spectrum in the optical range is a continuous spectrum with a number of dark lines or bands. The same radiation spectrum is observed in the radiation ranges invisible to the eye (see Radiation receiver, eye). Electromagnetic radiation has the ability to absorb. It passed through a gas with a temperature that is lower than that of the object emitting this radiation. Kirchhoff's law. The location of dark lines and bands in the spectrum depends on the chemical composition of the absorbing gas or mixture of gases.
Spin
Spin - This property is internal and is related to the rotation of the particle around its axis.
Spiral Galaxy
Spiral Galaxy - A flat but rotating galaxy with swirling arms that emanates from the galactic core.
Sputnik-1
Sputnik-1 - The world's first artificial Earth satellite, which was created on the basis of the Earth's surface, was a Soviet spacecraft launched into orbit on October 4, 1957 during the International Geophysical Year.
The nickname of the satellite "PS-1" stands for "The simplest Satellite-1". The launch was carried out from the 5th research range of the USSR Ministry of Defense, which later became known as the Baikonur cosmodrome, on a Sputnik launch vehicle, which is an upgraded version of the R-7 intercontinental ballistic missile.
Such scientists as M.V. Keldysh, M.K. Tikhonravov, O.G. Ivanovsky, N.S. Lidorenko, G.Y. Maksimov, V.I. Lappo, K.I. Gringauz, B.S. Chekunov, A.V. Bukhtiyarov, N.A. Bereskov took part in the process of creating an artificial Earth satellite under the leadership of S.P. Korolev and many others.
The launch marked the beginning of a new era in the field of political, military, technological and scientific developments. The launch date of the Sputnik-1 satellite, the first in the history of mankind, is considered the beginning of the space age of mankind, which is celebrated annually in Russia as Space Troops Day. The plain on Pluto was named after the first artificial satellite of the Earth, which was officially approved as the name for the planet on August 8, 2017 by the International Astronomical Union.
Star
Star - Broadly speaking, stars are self-luminous cosmic objects that are mostly composed of plasma that is heated by nuclear reactions occurring within them.
The main condition for a star's existence is a balance between the weight of the overlying layers and the pressure (see Radiation Pressure) of the electromagnetic radiation that results from thermonuclear reactions in its interior.
Also, stars are other objects that are not included in the list presented above. These include such entities as neutron stars and white dwarfs (see Stars, white dwarfs). They are the result of the formation at the last stage of evolution (see Stars, evolution) of some stars, when nuclear reactions in them have ceased. At the same time, these cosmic bodies are in a state of equilibrium. This is facilitated by the correspondence between the weight of the overlying layers and the gravity of the matter below them.
As stars are also called point luminaries on the celestial sphere. Scientists in the field of astronomy, navigation and sometimes, for example, when "covering stars with solar system bodies", planetologists are not interested in the physical parameters of stars as space objects.
It is worth mentioning that recently, attempts to observe stars as large and extended objects rather than point objects, such as the star Betelgeuse, an alpha in the constellation of Orion, have become successful.
Static limit
Static limit - There is a surface located inside a black hole in which it is impossible to be at rest.
Stationary state
Stationary state - There is a state that does not depend on time: a ball rotating at a constant speed is in a stable state, because despite the fact that it rotates, it always looks the same. This is because, despite the speed, it always remains the same.
Stellar brightness
Stellar brightness - the brilliance or brightness of a star is the flux of radiation coming from the luminary per unit surface area of the Earth.
Stellar wind
Stellar wind - The stellar wind is a collection of particles that a star emits.
Strong interaction
Strong interaction - The strongest and shortest interactions of all four fundamental interactions. Due to the strong interaction, quarks are trapped in protons and neutrons, and protons and neutrons combine to form atomic nuclei.
Substance
Substance - matter is one of the two basic forms of existence of matter. It can also be called Energy.
It is a type of finite entity in space that has a rest mass. (See Relativity theory, special). The application of the concepts of simple and complex substances in chemistry has a place. Simple substances are those composed of identical atoms of the same chemical element; complex chemical compounds, on the other hand, are those composed of different atoms combined into molecules of chemical compounds.
Supernova
Supernova - At the moment of the flash, the brightness of such a star increases by tens of thousands of stellar magnitudes (millions or even billions of times), and then gradually decreases over several months or years. Sometimes supernovae include flares whose radiation power exceeds. For a supernova outbreak, it is an explosion that occurred at the final stage of evolution, which completely destroys the star.
Superradiant scattering
Superradiant scattering - The effect of light amplification observed near a rotating black hole.
Supersymmetry
Supersymmetry - The symmetry of a physical system, which includes states that have different statistical characteristics, is considered in quantum field theory.
Synchrotron radiation
Synchrotron radiation - This radiation, which is emitted by relativistic charged particles in a magnetic field, is thermal radiation. It is caused by the acceleration of particles, which occurs at the moment of deviation of their trajectory from the magnetic field.
T
Tachyon
Tachyon - A potential object that is always moving at a speed exceeding the speed of light.
Tardion
Tardion - An object that always moves at a speed that is less than the speed of light (sometimes called a bradion).
Telescope
From the Greek tele - means far away, skopeuw - skopeo means to observe.
A telescope is understood to be a device that is used to observe space objects. Its function is to collect signals that come from distant radiation sources. But at the same time, the amount of energy that was collected in this case, the greater the area of the lens (see Telescope, lens). An example is a telescope with a lens having a diameter of one meter. It can collect about 30,000 times more light than the human eye (see Radiation receiver, eye). And a telescope with a mirror with a diameter of 6 meters is able to capture a luminous flux a million times larger than the human eye. In addition, the telescope has the ability to increase the size of distant objects.
Temperature
Temperature (from lat. temperature is the normal state).
The physical quantity given as an example characterizes the average kinetic energy of the particles (atoms, molecules, electrons, etc.) that make up a physical object. The higher the temperature, the more energy that is used to create it. Temperature registration is carried out by measuring the physical properties of objects that change with increasing temperature. As a rule, in the simplest situations, length registration occurs, i.e. volume, column of mercury or alcohol in a thermometer, or a change in the electrical properties of the sensor in thermoelectric temperature meters.
If necessary, to measure the temperature of the object, you can use the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation. As a result, the color, effective and brightness will be determined (see here) temperatures.
In order to assess the temperature level, four scales are used. To determine the reference points in three of them, the states of water phase transitions, such as the melting point of ice and the boiling point of water at normal atmospheric pressure, were used.
When measuring the temperature in the Celsius scale, the melting point of ice takes the value 00 C, and the boiling point of water is 1000 C.
According to the Fahrenheit formula, the melting point of ice is assumed to be 320 F, and the boiling point of water is 2120 F. The value of a degree in this scale is almost twice less than the value of a degree Celsius.
On the temperature scale, which is called Rheomur, the melting point of ice is taken as 0 R, and the boiling point of water as 800 R.
The Kelvin scale is a scale that is based on an absolute zero temperature of minus 273.150 C. The magnitude of a degree in this scale is equal to one degree Celsius.
Physical
The average kinetic energy of the particles of a physical body is a measure of temperature. This circumstance is present in its name.
The color scheme.
The temperature indicator for an object is called the color temperature. It characterizes the temperature of a blackbody in which the energy distribution over a wide range of its electromagnetic radiation is the same as that of a given object.
Therefore, in order to determine the color temperature of an object, it is necessary to measure the intensity of its radiation at two different wave frequencies. After that, the slope of the spectral region between the wavelengths in which the radiation intensity of a real light source is measured is measured and compared with the slope of the same sections of the spectrum of absolutely black bodies having different temperatures. Planck's law was used to create them. The temperature indicator of a blackbody will be taken as the color temperature of the object if the angles between the selected sections of the spectral lines coincide.
Technology
The electron temperature is measured in plasma, which is comparable to the average kinetic energy of electrons. It has a conditional meaning, since in most cases thermodynamic equilibrium is absent in plasma. At the same time, the kinetic energy of electrons significantly exceeds the energy of neutral particles and ions. The above value of the electron temperature is one of the most important parameters of the plasma state.
Professional
According to the definition, the effective temperature of an object is the temperature of a completely black body, each unit of it emits the same flow of energy in a wide range of electromagnetic radiation as any other unit of the area of this object. According to the Stefan-Boltzmann law, the high-efficiency temperature of an object is related to the flow of energy from it.
In order to determine the optimal temperature of an object, it is necessary to measure the radiation flux from it over the entire frequency range. To do this, you can use a radiation receiver or a bolometer.
In the case of objects like the bodies of the Solar System, which do not have sufficiently powerful energy sources, but at the same time have a radiation flux with a known spectral composition and power, another method is used to determine the effective temperature. It can be determined by the amount of solar energy that falls on these bodies. This possibility arose due to the fact that these objects are in thermodynamic equilibrium with the radiation flux, while their amount of energy is absorbed and radiated equally. Having an idea of their albedo, it is possible to determine their effective temperature using the Stefan-Boltzmann laws.
Bright, saturated.
The brightness temperature of an object is the temperature of a completely black body, each unit of it in a wide range of electromagnetic radiation emits the same flow of energy as any other unit of the area of this object. Such comparisons are carried out near the wavelength of radiation, which is 0.66 microns.
The black hole
The black hole - A grandiose region in space-time, which was formed as a result of a strong compression of matter, where the force of attraction is so great that neither matter, nor light, nor other media can leave it. The black hole is surrounded by a surface from which nothing can escape - the "event horizon", which is the boundary between the black hole and the environment.
The black-nosed bomb
The black-nosed bomb - A supernatural exploding device based on the effect of superradiant scattering of light enclosed in the area of the Kerr black hole.
The cellular structure of the Universe
The cellular structure of the Universe - The largest heterogeneity in the distribution of galaxies and clusters of galaxies, most of which are concentrated in the "walls of cells", almost empty inside. The classic cell size is about 10 Mpc, and the thickness of their walls is 3-4 Mpc. Some parts of the structure that have separate fragments are called superclusters of galaxies. In some cases, superclusters have a strongly elongated shape, similar to a thread, as they are formed as a result of the intersection of the cell walls. The largest and richest clusters of galaxies are located in nodes that were formed as a result of the intersection of filaments (edges) cells.
The Chandrasekhar Limit
The Chandrasekhar Limit - The maximum mass of a white dwarf is about 1.5 times the mass of the Sun. When this value is exceeded, the star will become neutron.
The core (atomic)
The core (atomic) - The heaviest and most massive part of the atomic nucleus, consisting of protons and neutrons, around which electrons rotate.
The core (of the galaxy)
The core (of the galaxy) - The concentration of stars and possibly gas in the immediate vicinity of the center of the galaxy.
The culmination of the luminaries
The culmination of the luminaries - These phenomena are called the culmination of the luminaries or the highest point.
The combination of a luminary with the celestial meridian in the southern part of the sky, where it occupies the highest position above the horizon, is called the upper culmination. The alternating intersection of the celestial meridian, illuminated by non-setting stars, in the northern part of the sky is called the lower culmination. For the northern hemisphere of the Earth, everything said is true. The southern hemisphere is different in that the upper culmination is in the northern part of the sky, and the lower in the southern.
The Ecliptic
The Ecliptic - This path of the Sun on the celestial sphere during the tropical year is a large circle along the plane of the earth's orbit.
The electron
The electron - There is a negatively charged subatomic particle in the atom, which usually moves around the nucleus.
The ellipse
The ellipse - The cone section is obtained as a closed line of intersection of the cone with the plane that intersects it.
The evolution of stars
The evolution of stars - There are various changes that the size, luminosity, structure and other characteristics of stars undergo over time.
The fascination of inertial systems
The fascination of inertial systems - A phenomenon in which space and time around a rotating body interact with its rotation (the Lenze-Thirring effect).
The field is physical
The field is physical - In the area of space where physical forces manifest themselves, which have reliable records and measurements, we can talk about a physical field. To date, within the framework of modern science, four types of them can be distinguished: gravitational (see here); strong interactions (see here) - nuclear; weak interactions (according to this information) and electromagnetic (according to this information) - magnetic and electric. According to quantum theory, the interaction of material objects at a distance is carried out through the exchange of their field quanta, which are common to each of the listed interactions. Each of the physical fields has its own distinctive features, which are described using strict mathematical formulas.
For several decades now, physicists have not stopped trying to create a unified, comprehensive field theory. It is assumed that she will present all these fields as different manifestations of one - "a single physical field."
To assert the existence of force fields other than those listed above has no scientific or experimental grounds.
A device for creating a gravitational field.
The gravitational field interacts with physical objects, influencing them. Due to this, the forces of gravitational interaction are directly proportional to their masses, and inversely to the magnitude of the distance between them raised to the second power. According to Newton's law, it is quantitatively described. It has been established that gravitational forces manifest themselves at any distances between objects.
Gravitons are quanta of the gravitational interaction field. At the same time, their rest mass is zero. Gravitons have not yet been discovered, but their existence follows from the most general theoretical assumptions, and this is beyond doubt.
Among all the phenomena of the universe, the gravitational field plays a key role in most processes.
In nuclear interactions, there is a strong interaction.
The strength of the field of strong interactions is manifested in the fact that it affects nucleons, which are elementary particles that make up atomic nuclei. It is able to combine the charges of protons, which have the same electric charges. This means that it can overcome the forces of their repulsion.
The force associated with this field is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the distance between the nucleons, which means that it is effective only at short distances. Due to the fact that the distances between the particles are 10-15 meters, the field of strong interactions becomes ten times more powerful than the electric field.
Gluons are elementary particles that are quanta of the strong interaction field. The lifetime of a gluon is 10-23 seconds.
This fact is also important for macro processes in the universe, since without this field, strong interactions would not allow atoms to exist.
Is this a consequence of insufficient interaction
The weak interaction, which is the interaction of weak currents, can manifest itself in the case of the interaction of elementary particles at a distance of 10-18 meters between them.
Intermediate bosons are elementary particles that are quanta of the weak interaction field. The lifetime of the intermediate boson is 10-25 seconds.
Currently, it is safe to say that the electromagnetic field and the fields of weak interactions can be combined into a single field theory, which means they have a common nature.
The field of weak interactions plays an important role in the processes that lead to the disintegration and birth of elementary particles, without which the universe could not exist in its current form. During the Big Bang period, this field played a big role.
Electric magnetic
When electric charges interact, which have a magnetic field, it manifests itself as the interaction of an electric field and magnetic fields that are at rest. It can be detected at any distance between charged bodies. Photons are quanta of the electromagnetic field. At the same time, their rest mass is zero.
An electric field has a property that allows it to affect objects that have a charge, which is an electric field. The physical properties and nature of electric charges cannot be unambiguously interpreted, but their values are parameters of the measure of interaction of charged formations that possess this property.
The carriers of the minimum values of charges are electrons and protons, which have a negative charge. There are also other particles that have very short time intervals, such as hydrogen and helium atoms. Objects located in physical reality have a positive charge when the number of protons exceeds the number of electrons, or - in the opposite case - a negative charge.
The increased interaction of charged bodies, including elementary particles and their electric charges, is directly proportional to their electrical characteristics and inversely proportional to the distance between them raised to the second power. It is generally believed that it is quantitatively described by Coulomb's law. Simultaneously charged and differently charged objects repel and attract.
The expression of a field that has magnetic properties and the force of action on other objects, such as plasma bodies, which also have magnetic properties. The properties of these objects are caused by electric currents, which are the ordered movement of electric charge carriers. The interaction measures determine the intensity of the flowing electric currents, measured in units of time through the cross sections of the conductors. Permanent magnets deal with internal ring molecular currents, which create an effect in their magnetic properties. It follows from this that magnetic forces are of an electrical nature. The ratio of magnetic interaction to electric currents in objects such as magnets is directly proportional to their intensity and inversely proportional to the distance between them raised to the second power. According to this law, it is described as Bio-Savard -Laplace.
The electromagnetic field plays an important role in any processes taking place in the universe involving plasma.
The Gallilean satellites of Jupiter
The Gallilean satellites of Jupiter are the four largest satellites discovered by Galileo in 1610 and named Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Calisto by S. Marius. An overview of Jupiter is synchronized with the tidal motions that cause them to rotate on an axis (like the Moon).
The giant planet
The giant planet - A large planet that approaches Jupiter or Saturn in size and mass has a low average density, consisting mainly of hydrogen and helium.
The greenhouse effect
The greenhouse effect - The preservation of heat on the surface of the planet due to the opacity of the atmosphere for infrared radiation, which is the main source of heat transfer of the planet. Venus, which has a high surface temperature, has the strongest greenhouse effect of the atmosphere.
The Kerr-Newman solution
The Kerr-Newman solution - By solving the equations of electromagnetic and gravitational fields in general relativity, a charged rotating black hole can be described.
The Lenze-Thirring effect
The Lenze-Thirring effect - The manifestation consisting in the "increase" of space-time by a rotating body: the fascination of inertial systems.
The light cone
The light cone - The presence of points in space and time into which the light emitted in a given event (the top of the light cone) can enter, or from which it can reach this vertex.
The light infinity of the future (J+)
The light infinity of the future (J+) - This region of space-time, which is located in the very distant future and where all the rays of light are directed, is the place where the world lines of all rays are located.
The Lorentz transformation
The Lorentz transformation - A system of relationships in the private theory of relativity, which connects the results of measurements that are made by two different observers located relative to each other. Almost always in such cases we are talking about measurements of time and distance, but sometimes we also talk about mass, etc.
The Lorenz-Fitzgerald scale reduction effect
The Lorenz-Fitzgerald scale reduction effect - From the point of view of an observer who is stationary and moving in the direction of movement of another person, the distances measured by him turn out to be shortened.
The luminous infinity of the past (J-)
The luminous infinity of the past (J-) - The world lines of light originate from there. This is a region of space-time in the distant past, where streams of light come from.
The Milky Way
The Milky Way - On a moonless night, when the sky is covered with darkness, you can clearly see a shining band that encircles the entire sky and represents a multitude of stars that are difficult to distinguish individually. It's called the Milky Way. These stars are concentrated in the plane of our galaxy. The line of the Milky Way, which is located in the plane of the celestial equator, is inclined to it at an angle of 620 degrees. The general tendency to increase the concentration of stars towards the center of the Galaxy and the presence of a large number of dark nebulae in the galactic plane contribute to its irregular shape.
The next, broader meaning of the concept of the Milky Way is the proper name of our Galaxy (the Milky Way).
The mind
The mind - Kant formulated reason as the highest faculty of thought, which gives a priori principles, encompassing creative imagination, moral feeling and religious perception.
At the moment, on planet Earth, the universally recognized carrier of reason is a person who is able to think comprehensively, abstractly and make generalizations.
In the process of deciding whether other living beings on the planet possess the rudiments of intelligence, psychologists and zoopsychologists will have to conduct quantitative assessments of the abilities to analyze and summarize information in certain living beings.
Having the opportunity to receive, accumulate, analyze and use information about the Universe as a source of its development, it is possible that these may also be devices created by humans or other intelligent beings. This is indicated by the direction of development of computer technology.
Due to the change in the state of matter that occurred after the Big Bang, it is possible that the mind is the next and natural stage of its development. In other words, we can say that mind is a fundamental property of matter that allows us to cognize and describe matter, which is itself.
The Molecular cloud
The Molecular cloud - It is an area of increased density of matter in the interstellar medium, which is characterized by almost complete opacity to visible light and ultraviolet light due to the fact that its molecular composition prevails. The main component of these clouds is hydrogen (H2) molecules, but more complex molecules are also present. According to research, the density of matter in a molecular cloud is 100-500 molecules per square meter. The temperature in the cloud is at a level of less than 100 K, and in its densest parts it is only 5-10 K.
The moment of the amount of movement
The moment of the amount of movement - The amount of motion of a rotating body, which is measured in kilometers and seconds, for a material point is equal to the product of its mass by the speed and distance from the axis of rotation.
The Mossbauer effect
The Mossbauer effect - It takes place in the field of nuclear physics, thanks to which nuclear isotopes can be used as extremely accurate clocks.
The Nebula
The Nebula - A dust cloud located within interstellar gas or dust, emitting light (or vice versa, absorbing the light located behind it).
The Noosphere
The Noosphere (from the Greek. noos - mind, thinking, and... sphere) is the sphere in which human thinking, mind, and activity are carried out.
The terrestrial noosphere is called the totality of parts of the Earth's surface, including the atmosphere, hydrosphere and upper part of the lithosphere, which have been exposed to human intelligence, namely: In addition, the noosphere includes a share of the biosphere, which is also being transformed by humanity.
There is an opinion that human actions harm nature. We must understand that Man is not only an element of the universe, but also its creation. Its activity is a natural process.
In order to search for extraterrestrial civilizations, it is necessary to take into account the variety of possible manifestations of their noospheres, which, under special conditions on other cosmic bodies, may differ significantly from the parameters of the Earth's noosphere.
The North Star
The North Star - The proper name is the brightest star, which is located on the celestial sphere near the north pole of the world. It is one of the brightest stars in the constellation Ursa Minor. Its stellar magnitude is 2.01. Over time, the position of the North Star relative to the north pole of the world changes slightly (see Precession). In 1900, she was one degree and fourteen minutes further from the pole of the world than in 2000. This happened between 1900 and 2000.
The parade of planets
The parade of planets - There is an increased interest in the phenomenon called the "Parade of Planets" in the media, which is a periodic phenomenon. It consists in the fact that some of the nine large planets of the Solar system are on a straight line with the Earth and the Sun. At the same time, it is claimed that this can affect the state of affairs on the planet.
Therefore, it should be remembered that several planets can be in the same plane with the Earth and the Sun for quite a long time, for example, for many millions of years. At the moments of the so-called parades of planets, they find themselves next to this straight line, but their "spread" can reach 20-30 degrees.
If we consider the impact of these events on our planet, it is worth noting that the largest planet in the Solar system is Jupiter. With his participation, the greatest gravitational impact on the Earth occurs, especially during the period of their confrontation.
In order to assess, it is possible to compare the gravitational influence of Jupiter on the Earth with the influence of the Moon, which daily, at the same time as the Sun, raises a tidal wave up to fifteen meters high in the oceans of the Earth. Despite the fact that Jupiter has a mass of 26,200 times that of the Moon, it is still in opposition to the Earth at a distance of 1640.6 times greater than the Moon. According to the principle of universal gravitation, the potential of the gravitational field is inversely proportional to the square of the distance, and the influence of Jupiter on the Earth is 103 times less than the influence of the Moon. Moreover, the gravitational impact of other planets is even tens or even hundreds of times less compared to what is an insignificant part.
Therefore, the anxiety sometimes experienced by people who have no experience in the field of astronomy about catastrophes on Earth occurring in connection with the "parade of planets" has absolutely no real basis.
The Penrose Mechanism
The Penrose Mechanism - This method is a way to extract energy from a black hole.
The photonic sphere
The photonic sphere - A fragment of a sphere formed by circular orbits of light around a Schwarzschild black hole.
The planet of the Earth group
The planet of the Earth group - This planet is one of the four closest to the Sun, it has dimensions, density and internal structure that are similar to Earth. It includes Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars.
The prefix "astro"
The prefix "astro" may also be a part of some terms in astronomy and astrology.
The primary black hole
The primary black hole - There is a very small black hole with a mass less than one mass of the Sun that could have originated at the time of the Big Bang.
The principle of disorder
The principle of disorder - The view that the singularity of space-time absolutely randomly generates matter and energy.
The principle of equivalence
The principle of equivalence - The idea that in small regions of space-time, gravitational attraction and acceleration cannot be distinguished from each other. This term is used to denote the equality of gravitational and inert masses.
The reflector
The reflector - This is a telescope in which lenses are used as a lens.
The Reisner-Nordstrom Black Hole
The Reisner-Nordstrom Black Hole - A black hole that has mass and electric charge is a non-rotating black hole.
The Reisner-Nordstrom solution
The Reisner-Nordstrom solution - The equations of gravitational and electromagnetic fields in general relativity describe a non-rotating black hole, which is non-rotating.
The Roche Limit
The Roche Limit - If the radius of the circular orbit of a satellite orbiting a celestial body decreases, it will be destroyed by tidal forces.
The Schwarzschild black hole
The Schwarzschild black hole - A black hole that has only mass has no electric field and is completely neutral.
The Schwarzschild solution
The Schwarzschild solution - In general relativity, a solution to the gravitational field equations has been found that describes a non-rotating black hole that is electrically neutral.
The Singularity
The Singularity - At this point, the curvature of space and time becomes infinite.
The singularity theorem
The singularity theorem - This theorem states that under certain conditions a singularity must exist and that, in particular, the beginning of the universe must begin with a singularity.
The solar system
The solar system - It includes not only the Sun, nine major planets and other celestial bodies, but also small planets, comets and meteoroids. All of them are in motion around the Sun, making movements in orbits that have very slight deviations from the plane of the earth's orbit, called the ecliptic plane. The main masses of dust, gas and plasma of the solar wind are concentrated in the plane of the ecliptic, which is the place of concentration of magnetic fields (see electromagnetic field, physical field). The sun makes up 99.866% of the mass of the Solar system, and the nine major planets make up 0.1337%. The total mass of 0.0003% is accounted for by comets and meteoroids, asteroids, dust and gas with plasma, as well as meteorites, satellites and large planets. These objects are arranged in descending order of their share in the total mass. At the same time, the size of the Sun - 1.5 million km - is 0.0001% of the size of the inner part of the Solar System, which is limited by the orbit of Pluto, which is the farthest of all the planets in the Solar system. At the same time, the total diameter of the Solar System in the plane of the ecliptic, limited by the Oort cloud and its constituent parts from cometary nuclei, is about 1-4 thousand times larger than the diameter of Pluto's orbit.
The boundary of the Solar System directed perpendicular to the ecliptic is called the heliopause. At this point, the process of equalizing the influence of the solar wind and interstellar gas, which flow around the Solar system moving around the center of the Galaxy, takes place. This distance in this direction is only 2.5-5 times greater than the diameter of Pluto's orbit.
Inside the Solar System, even in its inner part, the density is 1* 10-12 g/cm3, which is one trillionth of the density of water, and it can be reasonably said that it is a “visible void. It should be noted that the density of the Universe is 3* 10-31 g/cm3, i.e. three million trillion times less, but this does not take into account an unknown, possibly significant, addition of hidden mass. There is a critical density of the universe."
The speed of light
The speed of light (in vacuum), the speed of propagation of electromagnetic waves of any frequency, the limiting speed of propagation of any physical effects; one of the fundamental physical constants. There are two types of speed of light: c and g. The speed of light (c) is constant when moving from one frame of reference to another.
For the medium c', the speed of light (c') depends on the refractive index n of the medium, which differs for different frequencies v of radiation (dispersion of light). C'(v)=c/n(v). This dependence can be explained by the fact that it leads to a difference in the group and phase velocities, which are the same for a vacuum. When conducting an experimental study of the speed of light, the group velocity (i.e., the so-called signal velocity, energy transfer rate) is always measured.
It is established that the speed of light was first measured by O. Roemer in 1675 by measuring the time intervals between eclipses of Jupiter's moons. Brown measured the speed of light in 1728. Based on observations of stellar aberration, Bradley was developed. Scientific studies of the speed of light were carried out in the 19th century by many scientists (Michelson's experience, Fizeau's experience, Foucault's experience). A. Michelson obtained the value of the speed of light, which was the most accurate at that time: c=299796 ± 4 km/s. These measurements once again confirmed the wave theory of light. Produced in 1850 by J. B. L. Foucault's comparison of the speed of light of the same frequency v, which is observed in air and water, showed that the speed of light in air u=c/n(v) corresponds to the predictions of the wave theory. Based on this, a connection was established between optics and the theory of electromagnetism: The speed of light and electromagnetic waves corresponded to each other.
Modern methods for determining the speed of light based on the use of laser radiation and a modified Foucault method using a laser made it possible to increase the accuracy of measurements and obtain a value of c = 299792.5 ± 0.1 km/s. By determining the speed of light using indirect methods, for example, determining the speed of light as a quotient of independently found wavelengths λ and frequencies of atomic or molecular spectral lines, even greater accuracy can be obtained. For example, since 1972, according to the caesium-139 standard, the spectral frequency of the CH4 laser radiation has been determined with an accuracy of 11 digits, and according to the Krypton frequency standard, its wavelength (about 3.39 microns). At the same time, the value of c was obtained by multiplying 299792456.2 by 0.8 m/s. The International Committee on Numerical Data for Science and Technology (CODATA) decided in 1973 that the speed of light in a vacuum should be 299792458 m/s. At the moment, this value is relevant.
The star model
The star model - A fact that is the result of a theoretical calculation of the physical conditions inside the star.
The sun
The sun is the closest star to Earth and the central body of the Solar system.
The sun's crown
The sun's crown - The solar corona is the outermost part of the solar atmosphere above the chromosphere (see here), which is called the solar corona. It is observed, as it does not have clearly defined boundaries and varies depending on external conditions, a changeable radiant glow around the Sun. The shape and brightness of the solar corona depends on the degree of activity of the Sun. The indicator of maximum illumination that it can provide during a total eclipse of the Sun on the earth's surface is less than the indicator of illumination that the full Moon gives. The largest part of the corona, towering above the sun by 0.5-1.0 solar radius (or more), is called the inner corona. It reaches heights of several radii of the Sun during increased solar activity. Significantly lower is the so-called outer corona, which extends to the Earth's orbit and has a less bright color.
The corona is a collection of spicules and prominences scattered in the circumlunar space, which are components of the corona. Its rarefaction is one hundred billion times greater than that of the Earth's atmosphere. The temperature in the lower part of the corona, on a relatively small area of the surface, increases from tens of thousands to a million degrees. It has been found that there are two main ways to heat the corona.
The first of them is due to the redistribution of the energy of sound waves, which are the result of granulation (see here). At the same time, by themselves they are not able to spread beyond the chromosphere. But the propagation of the energy of sound waves into the coronal zone is carried out by converting them into Alvenov waves. These are transverse magnetic-hydrodynamic waves, which have the shape of waves with a longitudinal orientation, which propagate along the magnetic field (see electromagnetic field, physical field) without significant energy losses. In the case when the magnetic tube (see Solar, magnetic power tubes) contributes to the removal of Alvenov waves to a sufficiently high altitude, their reverse transformation into sound waves occurs, which heat the corona, as it happens in the chromosphere.
This second mechanism of corona heating is associated with the redistribution of energy, which is released during multiple solar flares of different power (see Solar flares).
It is the high temperature of the corona, due to the presence of ionized ions and free electrons in it many times, that contributes to the presence of numerous ionized ions and ions with electrons in it. Some atoms lack from 9 to 12 electrons. In general, on average, the plasma substance is electrically neutral - the total positive charge of ions is equal to the total negative charge of free electrons.
The corona glow is due to the photospheric radiation scattered on free electrons, which can be seen here. Radiating with the help of radio waves, it emits as a completely black body with a temperature of about a million degrees. But the corona is also a powerful source of X-ray radiation (see Electromagnetic radiation, non-thermal), which occurs as a result of the interaction of charged particles with magnetic fields.
The inner corona consists of interplanetary dust, which scatters the sun's rays and promotes the spread of the solar wind. The solar wind, which reaches the boundaries of the Solar System, is a natural extension of the corona.
The theory of the Great Unification
The theory of the Great Unification - The theory combining electromagnetic, weak and strong interactions is the most widespread.
The World Line
The World Line - The movement of an object in space-time.
The wrong galaxy
The wrong galaxy - This galaxy has an asymmetric shape and structure, which is not typical for typical elliptical or spiral galaxies. Depending on the morphemic classification system, irregular galaxies can be designated as I, Ir or Irr (from the English irregular irregular). The classic example of irregular galaxies is the Magellanic Clouds.
Theia (planet)
Theia (planet) - When Theia collided with the Earth, according to the theory of a giant collision, the Moon was formed. It is believed that the name was given in honor of Theia, one of the Titanide sisters of ancient Greek mythology, who was the mother of Helios, Eos and Selene.
Theory
Theory - From the Greek theoria - observation, study.
In a broad sense, a theory is a set of statements and relationships that accurately describe certain phenomena or processes in nature. The prior creation of a theory usually presupposes the existence of hypotheses.
Thermonuclear energy
Thermonuclear energy - The energy that is released during thermonuclear reactions.
Thermonuclear reaction
Thermonuclear reaction - The reaction in which light elements turn into heavy ones occurs as a result of a collision of nuclear physical particles at high energies.
Time
Time is a form of representation of the sequence of changes in the states of matter, which is called time. According to modern concepts, the properties of time can be defined as duration and irreversibility. Without exception, physical laws have to do with the direction of the flow of time, but in all known physical phenomena time flows only in one direction, which means its irreversibility. According to the theory of relativity, the rate of time flow has the property of slowing down. At modern views on time, based on theoretical conclusions and measurements, its quantum is equal to 5*10-44 seconds. At the moment, this is the so-called Planck time.
Time dilation
Time dilation - There is a phenomenon in which, from the point of view of an observer at rest, the clock of a moving observer lags behind.
Time-like infinity of the future
Time-like infinity of the future - this is a region of space-time that is in the very distant future and the world lines of matter particles are directed there.
Time-like infinity of the past
Time-like infinity of the past - a given region of space-time in the distant past from which all the world lines of matter particles came.
Time-like world line
Time-like world line - a world line or "trajectory" in space-time that has an angle of less than 45o with the time axis is a world line.
U
Unidentified flying objects (UFOs)
Unidentified flying objects (UFOs) - According to the definition, unidentified flying objects are any unusual natural phenomena that, according to their researchers, cannot be explained. In some cases, some of them, having an elliptical shape, have the right to be called flying saucers.
Reports of UFO sightings in the media are often the result of insufficient familiarization with the basics of physics, astronomy and ignorance of the details of the latest technological advances. UFOs in most cases are the rarest natural phenomena, for example: auroras, fireballs, etc., as well as astronomical phenomena or phenomena: Venus, comets, meteorites, etc.
There are very few cases where information about UFO sightings is reliable and can be trusted, as well as it is obtained by an experienced observer. At the same time, it is always not enough to restore the full picture of the event and, moreover, to understand the nature of the phenomenon.
One of the most popular assumptions about the extraterrestrial origin of UFOs and the constant presence of aliens from other planets on Earth. Nevertheless, it is difficult to agree with such a statement, despite the fact that it is based on a number of considerations.
The inhabitants of another world who have equipped such expeditions cannot be further than a few dozen parsecs from the Solar System. There are no conditions for their existence here. The maintenance of an extensive and long-term expedition in such a remote area from the "center" seems unreasonable. This seems more pointless if we take into account the low intensity and small variety of studies that are allegedly conducted by crews of many different types of UFOs. The main actions of the "Nlonauts", judging by the descriptions, are limited to appearances over populated areas or industrial facilities, the exits of pilots from UFOs, the capture for several hours or days of representatives of the earth's civilization for the purpose of their research, etc. If we also take into account that this continues, according to ufologists - researchers of UFO phenomena - for dozens, if if not for hundreds of years, then such unproductive activity of intelligent beings seems absolutely incredible. There is no doubt that for a highly developed civilization capable of sending a well-equipped interstellar expedition, a thorough study of the Earth and its inhabitants will take no more than a few months.
The acceptance of the hypothesis about the humanistic goals of UFO pilots' stay on Earth is completely refuted by the huge number of uncontrollable epidemics and military conflicts that they constantly provoke.
There is a possibility that UFOs were sent to us by a highly developed and powerful civilization that was ready to spend huge resources on monitoring the development of the situation on Earth. But in this case, it must inevitably manifest itself among other space objects, differing from them in spectrum and other characteristics by electromagnetic radiation, which is not observed.
The most effective way to study those rare events that cannot be explained within the framework of the studied physiological processes is their professional study. There are some phenomena that are related to heliophysics, atmospheric electrification, etc. However, this requires the creation of a permanent network of well-equipped observation posts, which may require significant costs.
Universe
Universe - universe usually means the entire space-time continuum in which we exist, together with its constituents: matter, energy and the bodies that are within it - planets, stars, galaxies and intergalactic space. The universe can be used as a synonym for space, nature or even the cosmos.
V
Vacuum
Vacuum (from Latin vacuum - void) is an important concept in classical physics. There are three meanings of the term in physics, which differ in engineering, space exploration, and physics.
In engineering, vacuum is the state of a gas at a pressure below the standard atmospheric pressure of 101,325 pascals. Outer space also contains vacuum, where at an altitude of 50 thousand kilometers above the Earth's surface, the pressure is very low - about 1*10-19 pascals, which corresponds to a concentration of about four molecules in 1 cm3. This state is already close to the space vacuum. In near-Earth interplanetary space, the concentration of atoms is a few pieces in 1 cm3 and they are mostly ionized, as they are components of the solar wind. In interstellar space, outside gas clouds, the concentration of atoms is an order of magnitude smaller. Inside gas clouds, the concentration is about the same as in interplanetary space. Given the existence of cosmic dust, the cosmic vacuum is not a void at all.
The physical vacuum is a space in which there are no particles of matter and the energy state has reached its lower limit, at which the average number of quanta of physical fields is zero. However, virtual elementary particles that appear and disappear have been found in the vacuum, and they influence physical processes. For example, polarization of electromagnetic radiation on these particles has been recorded.
Variable star
Variable star - A momentary star changing its visible brilliance. A separate component of the system, which is a variable star, periodically obscures the other from the observer on Earth. Cepheids, flares and supernovae, as well as other physical variables, the starry sky do change their brightness as a result of internal processes.
Venus
Venus is the second most distant planet in the Solar System from the Sun and the sixth largest of all the planets, which together with Mercury, Earth and Mars belongs to the group of Earth-type planets. It is established that the name was given in honor of the ancient Roman goddess of love Venus. Venus is considered a close relative of Earth in terms of a number of characteristics, such as mass and size.
Vertical
A vertical is a region that intersects with the celestial sphere by means of a vertical plane that passes through its center, zenith, and nadir.
Virtual couple
Virtual couple - there is such a particle-antiparticle pair in vacuum, which has not yet turned into a real particle-antiparticle.
W
Wavelength
Wavelength - the interval between two successive crests (or troughs) of a wave.
Weak interaction
Weak interaction - This is the second weakest of the four known interactions. Its effect is limited by a relatively short range. All particles of matter participate in weak interactions, but particles that are carriers of interaction do not participate.
Weightlessness
Weightlessness means a state in which the forces of gravity (see physical, gravitational field) do not affect the interaction of body parts, and also do not create pressure on each other.
It should be emphasized that the effect of the gravitational field of any body, for example, the Earth, extends over any distance. Initially, it decreases in accordance with the law of universal gravitation, but it does not reach zero anywhere. When the effect of gravity cannot be compensated by a force called in classical physics the “support reaction", a state of weightlessness occurs. The simplest illustration of this condition is the situation that occurs when an elevator falls. Just like the elevator itself, its passengers are in free fall. Therefore, they do not create a load on the elevator floor and can freely hover in it until they reach the bottom of the elevator shaft. There is a complete analogy with a falling elevator, when a spacecraft that was launched into orbit around the Earth is constantly in a state of falling onto it. But, when falling to the Earth, the spacecraft does not always reach its surface and, making a complete revolution around it, moves in an orbit around it.
It is impossible to achieve a state of absolute weightlessness, since the spacecraft is always under the influence of external or internal forces that are not gravitational. Their occurrence may be caused by the functioning of various systems and units of the spacecraft itself, the movement of astronauts and interaction with the atmosphere. You can also imagine that the falling elevator slightly touches the walls of the shaft.
The spacecraft reacts to factors such as vibrations, vibrations, etc., which cause small accelerations. These micro-accelerations account for millionths of the accelerations of free fall on Earth. Despite this, even such small fluctuations can distort the results of some scientific experiments that are carried out on board the device. In particular, these deviations must be taken into account when creating crystals in zero gravity.
White dwarf
A white dwarf is a small star, about the size of Earth but with high mass and density. It is the compressed core of a normal star that has cast its shell at the final stage of evolution.
White hole
White hole - bolometric stellar magnitude is the radiation flux of a cosmic source summed over all ranges of the spectrum. It is measured with a bolometer and allows us to calculate the total radiative power of the source (luminosity), provided we know its distance
Woads
Woads - there are places like Voids in the universe, and they can be tens of megaparsecs in size.
Wolf's number
Wolf's number - The Wolf number was named after a Swiss scientist who worked in the field of astronomy and Rudolf Wolf (1816-1893).
The most significant characteristic that characterizes the degree of activity of the Sun was proposed by Rudolf Wolf in 1849. These are the so-called Wolf numbers or, in another way, the Zurich sunspots. Using simple means of observation, it is possible to determine the Wolf number using simple methods. To do this, you need to know the number of sunspots and their groups on the currently visible disk of the Sun.
The exact amount of Wolf that can be obtained from a particular observer is defined as the sum of the product of the number 10 by the total number of groups of sunspots, while each individual element is considered a group, as well as the total number of spots, both single and included in groups. In order to determine the relative Wolf number, it is necessary to multiply the absolute Wolf number by the normalization factor, which will be determined for each observer and his telescope.
After restoration according to historical sources, starting from the middle of the XVI century and ending with the time of the beginning of counting the number of sunspots, the information helped to calculate the average Wolf numbers for each past month. As a result, it became possible to determine the characteristics of solar activity cycles, starting from that time and up to the present day.
World constants (constants)
World constants (constants)- Among the many physical constants, the world's fundamental constants occupy a special place. The generally recognized world constants include: the speed of light in a vacuum, the value of the electron charge, the mass of the electron, the mass of the proton, the gravitational constant and some others. Measurements carried out with a high degree of accuracy confirm their immutability in space and time.
Indeed, if the numerical values of the world constants were somewhat different, this would not lead to significant changes in the overall picture of the Universe. And yet the calculations suggest that this is far from the case. The physical properties of the universe are closely related to its numerical values.
In order to avoid complicated conclusions, we will note only a few results due to the fact that these constants would have other numerical values.
If the electron charge increased 10 times, it would lead to a 100 percent increase in the mass of matter, which is necessary to maintain thermonuclear reactions. The velocity of their flow would increase significantly, and in the modern Universe there would be no stars with a mass comparable to that of the Sun. Thus, all such stars would have already been turned into white dwarfs or neutron stars.
With an increase of 2.5 times the mass of an electron, hydrogen atoms are impossible. If the electromagnetic interaction constant, which depends on parameters such as the electron charge, the speed of light and Planck's constant, were reduced by 30 percent, the existence of atoms with an atomic number greater than four would become impossible.
Due to the fact that the Universe has a very narrow range of possible variations in the numerical values of the world constants, at which it can exist in its current form, we can talk about the uniqueness of a set of these values or the uniqueness of the Universe as a whole.
Y
Year
Year - the time of one revolution of the Earth around the Sun is called a year. Throughout the year, our planet moves through space at a speed of 29.765 kilometers per second. That's over 100,000 kilometers per hour.
Anomalous.
According to the terminology, the anomalistic year is the time interval between two consecutive passages of the Earth of its perihelion. Its period is 365.25964 days. In terms of time, it is about 27 minutes ahead of the duration of the tropical year (see here). This is due to the constant change in the position of the perihelion point. In the present time period, on January 2nd, the Earth passes the perihelion point.
Greening.
According to the currently accepted calendar, every fourth year in most of the world has an extra day, February 29, which is called a leap year. It is necessary because the Earth makes one revolution around the Sun for a period not exceeding one day. Significant error during the year is almost four hours, and every year it is compensated by the introduction of an "extra day". In addition, there is the Gregorian calendar.
Sidereal.
Survey time around the Sun in the coordinate system of "fixed stars", i.e. as if "'when looking at the solar system from the side'". This was equal to 365 days, six hours, nine minutes and nine seconds in 1950. The length of the year is altered by the perturbing influence of other planets, primarily Jupiter and Saturn, which affect it in a few minutes.
Also, in a hundred years, the length of the year decreases by 0.53 seconds. This is due to the fact that the Earth brakes the Sun's rotation around its axis with its tidal forces. However, according to the law of conservation of momentum, this is compensated for by the fact that the Earth is moving away from the Sun and according to Kepler's second law the period of its rotation increases.
Z
Zodiac
The zodiac is the region of the sky that is located at an elevation on either side of the ecliptic and contains the visible paths of the Sun, Moon, and major planets. It passes through 13 stars and is divided into 12 signs of the zodiac, passing through 13 constellations.